http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad Sat, 04 Apr 2026 14:20:22 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5769/how-prehistoric-society-advanced-in-iron-age-wales http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5769 Though first arriving around 1,000 BC, by about 600 BC, the Celtic tribes emigrating to Britain from Europe had well-established themselves on the island. Iron Age Wales was in full swing. As the Bronze Age drew to a close, people still utilized some bronze weapons and tools, but the use of iron became more prevalent. The Celts absorbed much of the existing Beaker culture and likely clashed with and eliminated some of them. Those who joined the Celtic society or lived alongside it for a while learned blacksmithing (iron craft) from the newcomers. 
So, who were these newcomers to Britain, and why was their arrival so significant? Research from archeological finds has shown that the Celts weren’t a distinct genetic group but more of a loosely-knitted collection of tribal societies that once covered much of Europe. They had no written language but did share the common tongue of Continental Celtic. Once they got to the British Isles, this language developed into Insular Celtic. Insular Celtic split into two groups: Gaelic and Brythonic, the latter of which eventually gave us Cymraeg (Welsh).
In addition to their language being the distant ancestor of modern Welsh, another contribution of the Celts to Wales was their fortifications. The Celts lived in roundhouses inside hill forts, which provided better protection and defense. Over 700 hill fort ruins still exist in Cymru today! The tribes also brought better ways of farming with stronger, improved tools over those of wood, such as an iron plow and other implements. These included spades, sickles, scythes, axes, forks, and hedge tools. But that isn’t all. The Celts brought even more changes to what is now Wales, and their art, structures, and wild spirit are still very much with us, which we’ll dive into below.
What time period was the Iron Age in the UK? 

The Iron Age in Britain ran from roughly 800 BC to 43 AD. While people in Britain used iron as early as 1,000 BC with the arrival of the first Celts, people didn’t widely use it until later in 500 – 400 BC. The period ended in 43 AD with the Roman invasion. That began the period known as Roman Britain, or in the case of Cymru, Roman Wales. 
For dominating a period of less than 1,000 years, the Celts made a massive impact. Even over 2,000 years later, we can still find many remains of Iron Age Wales hill forts. You can also find the ruins of many Iron Age settlements in the UK in England, Scotland, and Ireland. Maiden Castle (perhaps from Celtic “mai-dun,” which means a “great hill”) in Dorset is the largest hill fort in Britain. The Celts constructed it around 600 BC. Another major settlement is Traprain Law in East Lothian, Scotland. Covering approximately 40 acres at its peak, the Votadini tribe occupied it.
Who lived in Wales in the Iron Age? 

Mostly, it was the Celts who occupied Wales during the Iron Age. However, that happened gradually from about 1,000 to 600 BC as the Celts absorbed or reduced the existing Beaker population of Britain. By about 600 BC, Beaker culture had ended, and the new Celtic societies had taken over.    
Were the Celts from the Iron Age?

The Celts brought the Iron Age to Britain, so we strongly associate them with the Iron Age. So, yes, they are from the Iron Age in this sense. However, Celtic culture on the European continent actually began earlier than the Iron Age in Wales. They got their start as early as 1,400 BC in the Bronze Age. Archaeologists believe the inception of Celtic society was in the Danube area of Central Europe. So, the complete answer to the question is that, no, the Celts weren’t from the Iron Age. They came from the Late Bronze Age and lived through the Iron Age. 
Farming and Tools

As tribes gradually shifted from using bronze to iron for crafting tools, the Celts contributed a remarkable innovation in farming: the iron plow. Before the iron plow, the tool people used for tilling a field was basically a pointed stick that two harnessed animals pulled. The plow wasn’t very durable and only worked well in light, well-drained soils generally found in upland areas. The iron plow made it possible to cultivate the rich soils found in the lowlands. The only drawback to this valuable new invention was that it took a team of eight oxen to pull it. For that reason, the Celts made their fields long and narrow. This way, farmers could turn the team of animals as few times as possible. 
The Celts in Wales grew wheat as their primary and most important crop. They also grew oats and barley. Tribes also continued to hunt and gather. Depending on where they lived, they could forage for nettles, mushrooms, berries, nuts, and crab apples. They also kept bees for honey and mead making. (Fun fact: the Beaker folk were the first in Britain to make mead.) Welsh Celts raised pigs, cows, and sheep, and they hunted deer and boar. 
Housing and Settlements

Like the Beaker People, the Celts still lived in a type of roundhouse. Tribes constructed their roundhouses of different materials depending on what was available in the area. For example, they often used wicker for the walls, but in some areas, they used stone if there weren’t a lot of trees nearby. They made the roofs from thatch. People commonly made thatch from straw, but they could also make it from reeds or other plant material—again, like the walls, it depended on the region of Cymru and what grew nearby. 
The most significant change in housing and settlements was the construction of hill forts. A hill fort is generally a walled hut village or similarly well-fortified settlement on a hill or other advantageous land. The oldest hill fort in Wales that we know of is the one found in Dinorben. It dates back to about 1,000 BC. By about 700 BC,   Welsh tribes   were building hill forts as standard practice. The Celts often built hill forts on high ground, such as a hill, cliff, or promontory (high ground over water). 
Usually, people built a stone wall around the settlement. The wall may have had a wooden portion above the stone with a flat surface where guards, archers, etc., could walk and protect the village. Like the roundhouses, the construction of hill forts varied slightly by region. In southwest Wales, tribes often used a ditch and dyke structure to enclose the settlement by the sea on three sides. 
Weapons and War

The Celts loved fighting and engaging in warfare. While they were skilled warriors, their belligerent nature ultimately got the best of them, as the tribes never unified. They were too busy fighting one another! But I digress. 
In Iron Age Wales, the Celts made iron swords, spears, axes, and shields. The change from bronze to iron weapons meant better defense, as iron was slightly stronger. It also has the interesting property that the more times one repairs it, the stronger it gets. An unfortunate drawback is that iron tends to rust. However, iron was more widely available than bronze. Tribes could find it just about anywhere, giving them more independence with resources for weapons.
While the Celts didn’t invent the chariot, they did bring its use to Britain. (In case you were wondering, chariots were first known to be used in northern Syria by the Hurrians, the ancestors of modern Armenians, in 1,700 BC.) Evidence shows that by the late Iron Age, Celtic chariots were widely used in warfare. 
They also improved the saddle by giving it four pommels (the raised part like those on the front of Western saddles): two in front and two behind. The advantage of this was that it helped prevent a warrior from getting knocked off his horse so easily.
How the Celts Governed Their Tribes

Like the Beaker People who occupied the land before them, Celtic tribes in Wales were usually governed by a warrior king, chieftain, or sometimes a queen. However, each tribe had its own ways of structuring its leadership. At first, they elected their leaders. Rulers didn’t come to their status by birth as they did in later times in the Welsh kingdoms.
A village in Wales usually consisted of an extended family, like a clan. These clans were part of a larger tribe. Children were usually fostered out to other family members rather than being raised by their birth parents. The tribes traded goods with other tribes, as well as the peoples of Europe—after all, the Celtic tribes emigrated from the continent, so it makes sense that they retained valuable connections. 
Women in Celtic tribes were treated more equally to men than in many parts of the world at the time. They often participated in activities that, in other cultures, were restricted to men only. For example, the Romans gave accounts of Celtic women hunting, fighting alongside the men, advising in the running of the village (or, in some cases, being the one running it), owning property, and choosing their husbands. Research from burial sites has pointed to evidence that the early Celts may have traced their ancestry through the female line rather than the male. This practice changed at some point during the Iron Age to the patriarchal structure in later Welsh society. 
Religion and Burials

While we don’t know a great deal about the religion of the Bronze Age Beaker People, we know a bit more about the Celts’ religious beliefs. They were polytheists who believed in many gods and goddesses. The deities worshipped also varied by region and tribe. The Celts believed that spirits lived in everything—animals, plants, weapons, tools, everyday household items, and even stones, lakes, mountains, and streams. 
Celtic Head Hunters?

The Celts of Iron Age Wales greatly respected the human head as the seat of spirituality to the point that they would take enemies’ heads in battle and display them. In this way, perhaps they were taking some of the slain person’s power for themselves. Tribes or individuals also sacrificed to deities by leaving valuable items in that god or goddess’s domain, such as a lake or cave. Roman accounts also tell of human sacrifices to the gods. Human remains found in bogs back up this claim. 
Druids

Druids were not only the Celts’ priests but also healers (kind of like Iron Age doctors), teachers, advisors, and judges of sorts. They held very high authority, possibly higher than the king/chieftain. They also had their own schools where they passed down secret religious teachings and the oral traditions necessary to the lay people. 
Diverse Burial Styles

In Iron Age Wales, we see the round barrows of the Beakers transition to the diverse burial practices of the Celts. They made mounds covered with stones in some places. In Wales, this structure is called a “cairn.” They also performed cave burials, constructed burial chambers like people from the Neolithic period, or continued to use round barrows. Practices varied by region and tribe. For instance, some tribes cremated their dead before burial, and others did not. 
You can find a listing of 53 burial chambers from the Bronze and Iron Age in Wales at the   People’s Collection Wales . 
What is the oldest settlement in Wales? 

A Neolithic settlement in Llanfaethlu, a village in northwest Ynys Môn (Isle of Anglesey), is the oldest known in Wales. It dates back almost 6,000 years. Archeologists have found the remains of four Neolithic houses at this site. 
Even though the wild and painted Celts are no longer with us in body, their tenacity, strength, and love of their land endure in modern Cymru. The unofficial Welsh National Anthem, “ Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau” (Land of My Fathers ), indeed conjures the spirit of the   ancient Welsh people   who came before and forged such a proud nation.  ]]> Thu, 27 Mar 2025 20:38:53 +0000 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5765/4-best-books-about-wales-for-all-night-reading http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5765 Each of the four best books about Wales listed below will give you a deeper look at this fascinating country and make you feel closer to it. Why is Wales so important? Cymru (Wales) is important for retaining its unique Welsh culture and traditions. Some customs are more modern, while others trace back to the Celts and even earlier to the Beaker folk (like cawl!). Wales also boasts breathtakingly beautiful castle ruins and wilderness. 
In addition to all of that, Welsh is the oldest language in the British Isles that has been spoken continuously since its inception. It’s a Celtic language that began as Insular Celtic, then became Brythonic, and eventually, with many changes, became Cymraeg (Welsh) as we know it today. Wales has also kept certain mystical elements from its folklore, some richly preserved in The Mabinogion. 
What is the most famous thing about Wales? Wales is famous for many things, but some of the most notable are its beautiful flag with the red dragon on a green field, having the most castles per square mile anywhere in the world, and the Welsh language, which is the oldest in the UK. You might be interested in learning that Cymraeg (Welsh) traces back to its Brythonic beginnings around 4,000 years ago. 
What Welsh town is famous for books?

Hay-on-Wye (known as Hay or “Y Gelli” in Welsh) is also called “Town of Books.” Located in Powys, which is situated in Mid Wales and borders England, it dates back to the Middle Ages.

Here are the four best books about Wales in no particular order. They are all completely different, and each is excellent for a unique reason.



Best Books About Wales: A History of Wales by John Davis

Undoubtedly, it is one of the best Welsh history books in existence. While it isn’t a concise history of Wales and is not for the casual reader, it’s well worth the time spent immersed in its pages for the author’s expert knowledge and detailed descriptions.  
A History of Wales   takes the reader on a colorful journey that begins in Wales’ distant past in the Ice Age. From there, Davis takes you forward from a time when woolly mammoths roamed the frozen plains through the Beaker culture to the days of the Celts and their hill forts. He explores the Roman Occupation, the Reformation, and the Industrial Revolution. You’ll learn how mining, with its hardships and toil, became a part of Welsh culture. The book shows how the Welsh people have been able to endure and keep their spirit no matter the changes that come their way.
Davis’ incredible book also explains how the English conquered and subjugated the Welsh in several stages after the Normans had already partially conquered Wales. The first occurred when Edward I defeated Llywelyn ap Gruffudd (“Llywelyn the Last”) in 1282. Two hundred and fifty years later, Henry VIII’s Act of Union incorporated Wales into England and made English its official language. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 saw the Catholic King James II overthrown and changed England from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy. New commercial opportunities opened that would eventually lead to the Industrial Revolution. This more modern era brought good and bad changes for Wales, especially regarding mining. However, for a time, the country became a leading producer of coal, copper, slate, and iron.
What makes A History of Wales one of the best books about Wales? 

Davis isn’t overly sentimental but tells it like it is. Yet, he still succeeds in portraying the Cymry (Welsh people) as the proud, strong folks they are. He also goes into more recent politics, including Plaid Cymru, a nationalist party. One of their main goals is to make Wales an independent state within the European Union. In   A History of Wales , you’ll also find many little-known facts and a few interesting rumors. For example, America may have been discovered by a Welshman, Prince Madog, in the 15th century. 


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Novels About Wales: Pigeon by Alys Conran

Pigeon   is a heartbreaking and beautifully written story about hardship. While not a young adult novel due to some of the mature issues it deals with, it’s definitely a coming-of-age story. The story is set in a small Welsh town near Snowdonia National Park in North Wales. The main character, Pigeon (not a nickname but his real one), loves storytelling and words in general. The story centers around him and his best friend, Iola. They live in their own make-believe world to try to escape the realities of growing up in broken homes. Iola was raised by her older sister after her mother and grandmother died. Pigeon has it even worse. He’s been living in the garden shed ever since his abusive stepfather began making life at home unbearable. 
What makes Pigeon one of the best books about Wales? 

Although a fiction novel,   Pigeon   paints a picture of the challenging dynamic between the Welsh and the English. Despite Welsh being Pigeon’s first language, we learn how he sometimes has a complex relationship with his native tongue and his identity. The story also shows us some of the challenges in modern Wales.
Another aspect of the book that stands out to me is how it shows the power of our words and what they can do, both good and bad. Stories and imagination can heal and inspire; sometimes, our tales can have devastating consequences.  
This poignant novel won the Wales Book of the Year award in 2017 and has even been made into a play. Not many have heard of it outside of Wales, making it an underrated book—another gem waiting for you to read it and discover a brilliant author! The book is also   available in Welsh on Amazon UK .


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Amazon UK

Welsh Edition





Books on Welsh Mythology




The Mabinogion (Oxford World’s Classics) Illustrated Edition by Sioned Davies

If you want to learn about Welsh mythology, reading   The Mabinogion   is the best way to start. If you’ve never heard of this and don’t know what the title means or what it is, I’ll explain. The book is a famous collection of eleven mythology stories from Wales’ past. Although compiled in the Middle Ages, the tales of gods, goddesses, and folklore pre-date Christianity. 
The book’s title is from the word “Mabinogi,” which comes from the word “mab.” In earlier days, it meant “youth” or “boyhood.” However, over time, it evolved to mean “tale of a hero’s boyhood” and eventually was shortened to simply “a tale.” Lady Charlotte Guest, the first to translate the tales into English in the mid-nineteenth century, incorrectly called the entire body of work “The Mabinogion,” thinking that “Mabinogion” was the plural of “Mabinogi.” 
We still don’t know who the original authors of   The Mabinogion   were. These anonymous writers gave us 11 tales comprising the book’s four branches. The four branches are Pwyll, Branwen, Manawydan, and Math. These are the names of the “main characters,” if you will, the people whose lives form the foundation of the world depicted within. You’ll learn of Gwydion, the shape-shifter who brings a maiden named Blodeuwedd to life from flowers; of dragons, witches, and giants; of Arthurian romance, kings and heroes, quests to the Otherworld and back again; stories of love, revenge, and royalty. Through these tales of Celtic mythology, we also see the Welsh people fighting to keep their independence as a nation.  
What makes The Mabinogion one of the best books about Wales?

Davies’ translation is lively and engaging, and she formatted the book in shorter paragraphs. She’s also included notes in the back that explain specific phrases and give the reader context. A lot has changed in the many centuries since the stories were first told by the ancient Welsh. Davies ensures that modern readers can understand and enjoy the tales just as they did.   The Mabinogion   also preserves the pagan mythology of ancient Wales. It’s raw, powerful, and connected to all of nature, giving us a glimpse of how the Celts viewed life. While it may not be precise to classify it among books about Wales’ history, it still shows us aspects of it. The stories let us travel back in time, giving us a connection to the past we can feel.


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Amazon UK

The Mabinogion in Welsh











Owen – Book One of the Tudor Trilogy by Tony Riches

One last book in case you’re looking for a fiction novel with romance! Welsh servant Owen Tudor falls in love with the English queen in 1422. The stunning Catherine of Valois, the warrior king Henry V’s widow, is lonely, and her son Henry VI, the future king, exhibits symptoms of the family’s insanity. Owen has to decide if he’s willing to sacrifice everything to keep her safe as the nation teeters on the verge of civil war. In   Owen   by Tony Riches, we find out how the Tudors created a dynasty and altered British history.
Why is Owen one of the best books about Wales?

It’s a great way to learn about some of the true history of the   Tudor dynasty   through fiction. The story is told from Owen’s perspective. He’s fallen in status after losing his rights as a Welsh nobleman’s son. Owen develops a strong romantic attachment to the Queen despite having an affair with Juliette, the Queen’s maid. After the young Prince Henry departs the household to begin training for the throne, Catherine notices the loyal Owen and starts showing him affection. They have a covert wedding and settle in the sleepy village of Much Hadham (about forty miles north of London). While filled with turmoil and complicated matters of state, the book also shows the romance between the couple and Owen’s early life. Definitely worth a read!


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]]> Fri, 10 Jan 2025 21:09:10 +0000 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5763/gruffudd-ap-llywelyn-last-of-the-ancient-kings-of-wales http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5763 The story of the ancient kings of Wales begins with the Roman departure from Britain in 383 AD. Celtic tribal chieftains, freed from the yoke of Roman rule, fought amongst themselves to keep or establish control over their lands and defend their territory from invaders. These territories eventually became kingdoms. 
The most important of these realms were Ceredigion (later known as Gwynedd), Seisyllwg (later Powys), Dyfed (later Deheubarth), and Morgannwg (formed of Glywysing and Gwent). Welsh kings and princes ruled their kingdoms until the Middle Ages when King Edward I of England overthrew Wales’ last ruler, Llewelyn ap Gruffydd, in 1282—over 200 years after Gruffudd ap Llewelyn’s death.
Known as “Llewelyn the Last,” like some other Welsh rulers, Llewelyn ap Gruffydd went by the title of “Prince” and not “King.” Why? The truth is that the Welsh used both titles at different times and for different reasons. One reason may have been to distinguish themselves from other independent rulers in Wales and set themselves apart from the English king. After Edward I conquered Llewelyn and gained control of the land, Edward gave his son the title “Prince of Wales.” Since then, the heir apparent to the English and British throne has always inherited the title. 
Another reason Welsh rulers often used the title of “Prince” instead of “King” was that the kingdoms weren’t united—there was no “King of the Britons.” A single ruler seldom led them, and when he did, it wasn’t for long. The last Welsh ruler to hold the title of King was Gruffudd ap Llewelyn in the 11th century. Today, we sometimes refer to him as “the first and last king of Wales.” Not only did he unify Wales, but he also conquered some of the border lands the English had previously controlled. When Gruffudd was killed in 1063, the remaining Welsh leaders called themselves princes again. 
While we hear more about   Llewelyn ap Gruffydd   in the 13th century, the last ruler of Wales before the English subdued it, Gruffudd ap Llewelyn (200 years earlier) was a key figure in history as the last of the ancient Welsh kings. By that, we should clarify that we’re referring to the title used more than how the rulers functioned. The princes in ancient Wales acted very much like kings in their capacities. They often ruled subkingdoms, smaller kingdoms within larger ones such as Gwynedd or Powys.
Gruffudd ruled as the King of Wales from 1055 – 1063. Something worth noting here is that Gruffudd’s given name also frequently appears with the spelling “Gruffydd.” In this article and throughout this website, we’re using “Gruffudd” as the spelling. Michael Davies and Sean Davies, the authors of the exceptional book   The Last King of Wales: Gruffudd ap Llywelyn, c. 1013-1063 , have listed the king’s name as above.
The Life of Gruffudd ap Llewelyn in the Ancient History of Wales

Historians believe Gruffudd was born a prince in 1010 or 1011 AD in Rhuddlan, in the Kingdom of Powys, North Wales. Although history hasn’t left us much about Gruffudd’s childhood, we know a bit from the stories of Walter Map, a writer and the courtier of King Henry II of England. Map said that Gruffudd was slow, downcast, and generally without direction in his youth. However, later in life, he became ambitious and took on responsibilities. It didn’t take long until his aspirations soared higher than anyone could have guessed!
In 1039, after Iago ab Idwal, the King of Gwynedd, was killed by his own men, Gruffudd took the lead and became king of both Powys and Gwynedd. He then took on the Saxons of Mercia, the neighboring kingdom to Welsh borders. He and his fighters achieved a victory in the battle of Rhyd-y-groes on the Severn River. As the Welsh kingdoms had been fighting the Saxons for hundreds of years, Gruffudd gained favor immediately among the   Welsh people . 
The Welsh Marches

Gruffudd’s victory over Mercia made the borderland between Wales and England known as the “Welsh Marches” safe for his people. Not only did this bring the Welsh more security, but it instantly boosted Gruffudd’s status and influence with his subjects. Quelling the Saxons gave him the support he needed to take the other Welsh kingdoms by force or bring them under his rule through diplomacy. By about 1055, Gruffudd ap Llewelyn had united all of Wales. 
Alliance with Mercia 

A critical reason that Gruffudd succeeded in solidifying his rule of the Welsh kingdoms was that he allied with Aelfgar, the Saxon King of Mercia. As Mercia was a neighboring English kingdom, this alliance only increased the security Gruffudd achieved with his victory over the Marches. How was this possible, especially since Wales and England had been enemies for centuries, and it was the Mercians who Gruffudd had defeated at Rhyd-y-groes? Aelfgar had his own enemies he needed help with—the Godwine family in Northumbria. 
When Aelfgar was exiled, he recruited an Irish mercenary fleet. Gruffudd also gathered a vast army, and together, he and Aelfgar attacked the Saxons and Normans under Earl Ralf. With Gruffudd and Aelfgar’s forces victorious, they set the town of Hereford afire. Aelfgar was later able to return to his own lands. Gruffudd then married Aelfgar’s daughter, Ealdgyth. The alliance of Gruffudd’s Wales and Aelfgar’s Mercia eventually culminated in a peace treaty with Edward the Confessor of Wessex in 1056. 
The Death of Gruffudd ap Llewelyn

Unfortunately, Aelfgar’s death late in 1062 gave discontent members of the Godwine family the opportunity they’d been looking for. Harold Godwinesson, the Earl of Wessex, attacked Gruffudd’s court without warning. He then turned some of Gruffudd’s own compatriots against him. Not all the princes and other lords of Wales agreed with Gruffudd’s rule, so Harold used these rivalries to his advantage. In 1063, Gruffudd ap Llewelyn, the last king of Wales, was slain by his own men. The traitors then sent the earl Gruffudd’s head.
Gruffudd’s death left England and Wales vulnerable to the Norman rule that soon followed. For a brief time, of all the ancient kings of Wales, he had brought his country together in a way like no one before him. Gruffudd may have given the people of his time more than any other leader had. He brought vision, identity, and alliance with Anglo-Saxon England. We’ll always remember Gruffud ap Llewelyn’s story among famous Welsh kings and as a founding father of Cymru.
Ancient Kings of Wales in Order

Here is an ancient kings of Wales timeline showing the leaders of the kingdoms in Cymru in the order they ruled. While we don’t know the exact dates for many of these kings and princes, we do have a good idea of their approximate times of leadership based on historical records. Larger kingdoms, like Gwynedd, often had a king with princes ruling over sub-kingdoms within it. This king of Wales list includes some rulers of petty kingdoms, cantrefs, and commotes (subdivisions of cantrefs).
Kingdom of Gwynedd



King of Gwynedd Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Cunedda Wledig ap Edern   370 Einion Yrth ap Cunedda Einion the Impetuous 410 Cadwallon Lawhir ap Einion Cadwallon Long Hand 440 Maelgwn Hir ap Cadwallon Maelgwn the Tall, Maelgwn Gwynedd died 547 Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn Rhun the Tall 500 Beli ap Rhun     Iago ap Beli   died approx. 616 Cadfan ap Iago   565 Cadwallon ap Cadfan   died 634 Cadafael ap Cynfeddw Cadfael the Battle-Shirker   Cadwaladr Fendigaid ap Cadwallon Cadwaladr the Blessed died 664 Idwal Iwrch ap Cadwaladr Idwal Roebuck 660 Rhodri Molwynog ap Idwal Rhodri the Bald and Gray died 754 Caradog ap Meirion   died 798, Prince of Rhos Cynan Dindaethwy ap Rhodri   died 816 Hywel ap Caradog     Merfyn Frych ap Gwriad   died 844

Kingdom of Dunoding (Sub-kingdom)

Princes of Dunoding     Title, Notes               Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Dunod ap Cunedda Wledig   400 Eifion ap Dunod ap Cunedda   430 Dingad ap Eifion   470 Meurig ap Dingad   500 Eifion ap Meurig   530 Issac ap Eifion ap Meurig   570 Pobien Hen ap Isaac   600 Pobddelw ap Pobien Hen   630 Eifion ap Pobddelw   670 Brochwel ap Eifion   700 Eigion ap Brochwel ab Eifion   730 Ieuanawl ab Eigion   770 Caradog ap Ieuanawl   800 Blieddud ap Caradog   830 Cuhelyn ap Bleiddud   870

Kingdom of Rhufoniog (Sub-kingdom)

Princes of Rhufoniog Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Rhufon ap Cunedda Wledig   400 Breichiol of Rhufoniog   830 Mor ap Breichiol   870 Aeddan ap Mor   900 Morudd ap Aeddan   930 Mor ap Morudd   970

Kingdom of Dogfeiling (Sub-kingdom)

Princes of Dogfeiling Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Dogfael ap Cunedda Wledig   410 Elno ap Dogfael   440 Glas ap Elno   470 Elgud ap Glas ap Elno   500 Elaeth ab Elgud   530 Meurig ap Elaeth   570

Kingdom of Rhos (Sub-kingdom)

Princes of Rhos Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Owain Ddantgwyn ap Einion Yrth   440 Cynlas Goch ab Owain Gwyn   470 St Einion (Llŷn) ap Owain   470 Maig ab Owain ap Cynlas   500 Cadal Crysban   560 Idgwyn ap Cadwal Crysbyn   590 Einion ab Idgwyn   620 Rhufon ap Einion ap Idgwyn   650 Hywel ap Rhufon   680 Meirion ap Hywel ap Rhufon   710 Hywel ap Caradog   825

Ancient Kings of Wales: Kingdom of Dyfed

Kings and Princes of Dyfed Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Triffyn Farfog   430 Aergol Lawhir   460 Vortiporius     Cloten ap Nowy ap Arthur Also called “Gwlyddein” 600 Maredudd ap Tewdwr   died 796 Rhain ap Maredudd   died 808 Owain ap Maredudd   died 811 Triffyn ap Rhain   died 814 Hyfaidd ap Bleddri   died 893 Llywarch ap Hyfaidd   died 904 Rhodri ap Hyfaidd   died 905

Kingdom of Morgannwg
Kingdom of Ewyas (Sub-kingdom)
The Kingdom of Ewyas (also spelled “Ewias”) was a regional kingdom existing in what is now Wales and Herefordshire, England.
Kings of Ewyas     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Clydog ap Clydwyn Grandson of Brychan 400

Kingdom of Ergyng (Sub-kingdom)

Kings of Ergyng     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Peibio Clafrog ap Erb   525 Cynfyn ap Peibio   550 Gwrfoddw     Gwrgan Fawr ap Cynfyn   650

Kingdom of Glywysing (Sub-kingdom)

Kings of Glywysing     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Glywys ap Solor     430 Pawl Penychen     465 Mechwyn ruler of Gorfynydd, which was possibly a cantref of Glywysing   Ithel ap Morgan     ruled from 710–745 Hywel ap Rhys   died around the year 886 Gruffydd ab Owain King of Gower died in 934 or 935 Cadwgan ab Owain King of Margam died 949 Hywel ab Owain King of Glad Forgan – Glamorgan died 1043


Prince of Glywysing         Athrwys ap Meurig   620

Cantref of Gwynllŵg
Gwynllŵg was a cantref (a medieval land division similar to a county) in Glamorgan (Gwent).
Rulers of Gwynllŵg     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Gwynllyw ap Glywys ruler of Gwynllwg, cantref of Glywysing 460 Saint Cadoc son of Gwynllyw, ruler of Gwynllwg 495

Kingdom of Gwent (Sub-kingdom)

Kings of Gwent     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Ynyr Gwent     450 Caradoc ap Ynyr     480 Ffernfael ab Idwal     Ithel ap Hywel     Ffernafael ab Ithel ap Morgan   775 Meurig ap Hywel     Ffernfael ap Meurig     Brochwel ap Meurig   830 Arthfael ap Hywel   860 Ithel ab Athrwys ap Ffernfael   died 848 Arthfael ap Noe   930 Rhodri ab Elise     Gruffudd ap Elise     Edwyn ap Gwriad   1020

The Kingdom of Morgannwg (Sub-kingdom)
The Kingdom of Morgannwg was sometimes an independent kingdom, and at other times, it was formed from the two Kingdoms of Morgannwg and Gwent.
Kings of Morgannwg     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD   Ithel ab Athrwys ab Meurig   650 Owain King of Morgannwg 930 Morgan Hen ab Owain   died 974 Owain ap Morgan Hen   974

The Kingdom of Ceredigion

Kings and Princes of Ceredigion     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD   Ceredig ap Cunedda   possibly 410 Usai ap Ceredig       450 Serwyl ab Usai       490 Boddw ap Serwyl       530 Arthfoddw ap Boddw       570 Arthlwys ab Arthfoddw   610 Clydog ab Arthlwys     650 Seisyll ap Clydog,   King of Seisyllwg, Ceredigion, and Ystrad Tywi 690 Arthen ap Seisyll   died 807 Dyfnwallon ab Arthen   750 Meurig ap Dyfnwallon   780 Gwgon ap Meurig     died 872

Kingdom of Powys

Kings of Powys Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Vortigern High-King Gwrtheyrn. Ruled Buellt and Gwrtheyrnion 365 Cadeyern Fendigaid Also called Cateyrn ap Gwrtheyrn 400 Rhuddfedel Frych     Morgan ap Pasgen Also called Mawgan ap Pascen 430 Cadell Ddyrnllwg son of Cadeyern 430 Cyngen Glodrydd son of Cadell 460 Pasgen ap Cyngen     Brochwel Ysgithrog   490 Cynan Garwyn   520 Selyf ap Cynan Also called Selyf Sarffgadau 550 Manwgan ap Selyf Also called Mael Myngan ap Self Sarffgadau 580 Eiludd Powys     Beli ap Eiludd son of Manwgan/Myngan   Elisedd ap Gwylog   680 Brochfael ap Elisedd Also called Brochwel ap Elise 705 Cadell ap Brochfael Also called Cadell ap Brochwel ap Aeddan   Cyngen ap Cadell Also called Cyngen ap Cadell ap Brochwel died 855 Merfyn ap Rhodri Son of Rhodri the Great (Rhodri Mawr) died 904 Llywelyn ap Merfyn Grandson of Rhodri the Great 870

Kingdom of Pengwern (Petty Kingdom)
Pengwern was a petty kingdom located in what is now the Midlands. It was possibly near the Wrekin, a hill in Shropshire, England.
Kings of Pengwern     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD   Cyndrwyn   535 Cynddylan ap Cyndrwyn   alive during 642

Kingdom of Brycheiniog

Kings of Brycheiniog Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD   Anlach mac Cormac     Brychan Brycheiniog ap Anlach   400 or 470 Tewdwr ap Rhain   700 Nowy   725 Gruffudd ap Nowy   750

Ancient Kings of Wales: Welsh Regional Kingdoms
All of Wales

Gruffudd ap Llywelyn Ruler of all of Wales by 1055 1039–1063

North Wales
Gwynedd and Powys

Kings and Princes of Gwynedd and Powys Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Iago ab Idwal   died 942 Bleddyn ap Cynfyn   died 1075 Rhiwallon ap Cynfyn   died 1070

South Wales

Cadell ap Rhodri   878–910

Cantref of Buellt and Commote of Gwrtheyrnion
Note: A “commote” is a territorial division under a cantref.
Kings and Princes of Buellt and Gwrtheyrnion Title, Notes   Approx. Year Began Rule, AD   Pasgen ap Gwrtheryn Also called Pascent. Son of Vortigern 400 Pawl ap Mepurit   510 Eldog ap Pawl   550 Eldad ab Eldog ap Paul   590 Morudd ab Eldad   630 Pasgen Buellt ap Gwyddaint   700 Tewdwr ap Pasgen   730 Gloud ap Pasgn Buellt   730 Ffernfael ap Tewdwr   760

Deheubarth and Gwynedd
Regions: West and Northwest of Wales.
Kings of Deheubarth, Gwynedd Title, Notes   Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Maredudd ab Owain Owain ap Hywel’s son died 999 Aeddan ap Blegywryd   died 1018 Llywelyn ap Seisyll   died 1023

Ceredigion, Meirionnydd, Gwynedd
Regions: Kingdom of Gwynedd when it encompassed a larger area, including Ceredigion (Deheubarth), Meirionnydd, and Dyffryn Clwyd, making the king’s realm Northwest and West Wales. He also ruled Rhos and Rhufoniog.
Gruffudd ap Cynan   King of Gwynedd 1081–1137  

Deheubarth, Gwynedd, Powys  
Regions: North and Mid to Southwest Wales.
Kings of   Dyfed, Brycheiniog   Title, Notes   Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Cathen ap Gwlyddein   625 Cadwgon ap Cathen   650 Rhain ap Cadwgan Also called Cadwgon. Also ruled Ystrad Tywi in Southwest Wales. 675


King of Deheubarth, Gwynedd, Powys                                 Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Rhodri Mawr   872–878


King of Dyfed, Gwynedd, Powys, Seisyllwg     Hywel Dda Hywel the Good. King of all of Wales, except for Gwent and Morgannwg in the south.   died 950

Ergyng, Gwent
Region: Southeast of Wales
King of Ergyng, Gwent Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Erb   500

Glywysing, Gwent
Region: Southeast of Wales
Kings of Glywysing, Gwent     Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Tewdrig Glywysing and Gwent 575 Meurig ap Tewdrig Glywysing and Gwent 590 Morgan ab Athrwys Glywysing and Gwent 650 Meurig ab Ithel   born approx.. 720, reign 745–775 Arthfael Hen ap Rhys Arthfael the Old 760 Owain ap Hywel   860 Caradog ap Gruffydd   died 1081 Iestyn ap Gwrgan Lord of Glamorgan. Also called Iestyn ap Gwrgant. 1081–1093

Gwent, Morgannwg
Regions: South and Southeast of Wales
Kings of Gwent, Morgannwg Title, Notes Approx. Year Began Rule, AD Meurig ap Hywel Gwent and Morgannwg   Cadwgan ap Meurig Gwent and Morgannwg  

Who Is the King of Wales Now?
No one has held the title “King of Wales” since Gruffudd ap Llewelyn. However, Charles III held the title “Prince of Wales” for 64 years. He acceded to the British throne on 8 September 2022, upon the death of his mother, Queen Elizabeth II. Since then, Charles III has been the king of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The UK consists of England, Wales, Scotland, and Northern Ireland (but not the Republic of Ireland). If you’d like to see an ancient kings of Wales map, this one on Britain Express shows the   major kingdoms of Cymru from 500 to 700 AD . ]]> Fri, 03 Jan 2025 22:10:10 +0000 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5762/the-fascinating-history-behind-3-popular-welsh-gifts http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5762 Three popular Welsh gifts given throughout the years in Wales are Welsh love spoons, Welsh slate gifts, and gifts featuring the Welsh Lady—a woman wearing the traditional Welsh costume of a woolen dress with an apron, neckerchief, stockings, red cloak, and tall black hat. Before the early 1800s, Wales didn’t have a national dress for women. We’ll explore its origin and the woman who popularized it. 
Did you know that love spoons aren’t unique to Wales? However, crafters of the love spoon in Cymru brought their own style, skillfulness, and attention to detail virtually unmatched anywhere else, truly bringing the Welshness factor into what we know as Welsh love spoons. 
The history of slate in Wales goes back over 1,800 years. People in North Wales began quarrying slate in Roman times. When the Industrial Revolution swung into high gear in Wales in the 1800s, the Welsh slate industry boomed. Slate in Wales is around 500 million years old and is the highest quality worldwide. A gift of slate from Cymru is a gift of the land itself. 
The Welsh Lady (Welsh National Costume) 


You may have seen small dolls in Wales dressed in a particular manner or an image of a woman wearing a tall, black hat painted on ornaments or other decorative items. This woman has become known as the “Welsh Lady.” She represents the Welsh National Dress, the traditional clothing women in rural parts of Cymru wore in the early 1800s. 
What does this traditional costume consist of, and why has it become a symbol of Welsh identity? The outfit is comprised of a loose-fitting dress (also called a “bedgown”) made of wool and worn over a corset. Underneath this, ladies wore an undergarment called a “petticoat,” which is a shorter skirt and was usually also made of wool. Women wore aprons over their bedgowns and also put on knitted stockings, a neckerchief, and a red cloak. They finished off the look with a tall black hat. The iconic black hat has become known as the “Welsh Hat.”
Before the 19th century, Wales did not have a specific cultural dress, although women who lived in remote parts of Cymru did wear wool dresses. Ladies drew inspiration for their gowns from 18th-century fashions, but beyond that, they didn’t have a national costume. 
How Did the “Welsh Lady” Identity Turn into Popular Welsh Dolls?

Augusta Hall (born Augusta Waddington [March 21, 1802 – January 17, 1896]) popularized the idea of a Welsh national costume. Also known as “Lady Llanover,” as her family was from Llanover, Monmouthshire, she was well educated and had traveled all over Britain and Europe. In 1823, Lady Llanover married Benjamin Hall, an MP (member of parliament) for 22 years. Among his other contributions, he’s remembered as the person in government who oversaw the construction of Big Ben in Westminster. Yes, if you were wondering if the clock is nicknamed after Benjamin Hall, indeed it is! Its official name is “Elizabeth Tower,” after the Queen. 
Lady Llanover was busy with her own worthy endeavors of promoting Welsh folk culture and the Welsh language. She was one of the leading proponents of the triple harp as Wales’ national instrument. She also ensured that Welsh was taught in two schools and assisted in starting a women’s Welsh language magazine called “Y Gymraes” (“The Welsh Woman”).
Lady Llanover was also responsible for forming the foundations of the Welsh national dress. At the Eisteddfod in Cardiff in 1834, she submitted an essay under her bardic name, “Gwenynen Gwent.” (A “bardic name” is a fictitious name used by artists and poets in Cornwall, Brittany, and Wales.) The essay was entitled “The Advantages Resulting from the Preservation of the Welsh Language and National Costumes of Wales.” It won Best Essay in the competition. Her dress ideas took hold, and women accepted them throughout the country. One might say that Lady Llanover was the original Welsh Lady! While the traditional costume is now only worn on St. David’s Day or by performers at eisteddfodau (festivals of music or poetry), the Welsh Lady is very much alive as a cultural symbol in art, gifts, and the cute dolls we see. 
Welsh Love Spoons 


People began giving Welsh love spoons as gifts in the 1600s. They were made either from scratch or from large wooden kitchen spoons and carved with symbols and shapes, especially on the handles. The spoons began as a token of affection that a young man would create and give to the woman he loved, hoping she would accept his offer of a relationship. While he might also give her sweets or flowers, a love spoon was a highly personalized gift and went beyond merely a beautifully crafted woodwork. For one thing, he chose what symbols to place on the spoon, conveying a message only for his beloved. Secondly, the many hours of work he put into perfecting each little detail in the gift showed his commitment to her. And finally, the craftsmanship itself showed his skill and good qualities as a potential husband. 
The Oldest Love Spoon in Wales

The custom of carving love spoons does not actually originate in Wales. They’ve been found all over Europe—especially in the Celtic areas. However, the Welsh people took this tradition and gave it their own style, creating some of the most intricate and unique love spoons in the world. The spoons carved in Cymru varied in every way, from size to the wood used to different degrees of intricacy. Each spoon was a unique creation with a separate and special meaning from every other spoon. Unfortunately, we don’t know who made the first love spoon in Wales. However, we do know of the oldest surviving love spoon from Cymru that a young suitor made in 1667. You can see it at   St. Fagan’s National Museum of History . 
Love and Marriage in Remote Parts of Wales

Another interesting aspect of the history of Welsh love spoons is that when people first began making them, couples in remote parts of Cymru rarely had a formal engagement or marriage ceremony. They merely started a relationship and later lived together as husband and wife. (This changed during the 1800s when the registry of marriages became mandatory in England and Wales.) The new wife would then proudly display her love spoon on the wall to symbolize the couple’s bond. Seen in this light, especially as many families were poor and couldn’t afford jewelry, the love spoon almost acts as a kind of wedding ring and token of their vows to one another. 
In this post about   Welsh Mother’s Day gifts , you can learn about some symbols on Welsh love spoons, their meanings, and the different types of wood used. 
Welsh Slate Gifts


What makes slate so valuable? For one thing, it can last a very long time. On a roof, it can last for over a hundred years. Of course, depending on what builders use it for, slate can last far longer than that. For example, the Bronze Age ring cairn, Bryn Cader Faner in North Wales, could be as much as 4,000 years old! Much of it remains, and you can still visit this haunting ring of stones today.
One reason slate lasts so long is its low water absorption. This quality makes it resistant to damage from frost and erosion. In addition to that, unlike some materials, slate’s color only improves with time. That means that its rich hue only deepens rather than fades. Slate is also a dense stone, which makes it withstand lots of weather without cracking easily.
Slate has always been a part of life in Wales. The ancient Welsh used it since antiquity for various purposes, including burial sites, tools, and shelter, to name a few. The more “recent” history of Welsh slate goes back over 1,800 years to when the Romans built their military forts in Britain. They constructed Segontium, a fort in Caernarfon, using slate from the quarries in North Wales. The slate was also used in building castles, such as Conwy Castle, which King Edward I built. However, it wasn’t until the advancements of the Industrial Revolution that Wales’ slate industry boomed. Wales soon became the leading slate producer in the world!
While the last slate mines closed in the 1960s, people still prize Welsh slate for its beauty, durability, and high quality. It’s used in everything from roofs to buildings to ornaments, cutting boards, and   keepsakes. As a gift, Welsh slate is a fun and unique way to connect with this intrinsic part of Wales’ past. 
More Ideas for Sharing a Love of Cymru

For other ideas for Welsh gifts, check out the following posts:


Welsh Gifts for Him:   9 Welsh Gifts for Him That Are Thoughtful and Fun
Welsh Terrier Gifts:   The Breed That Inspired the Cute Welsh Terrier Stuffed Animal
Books About Wales:   7 Great Welsh Gifts for the Bookworm in Your Life
Unusual Welsh Gifts:   5 Ways to Celebrate Memories and Connections With Unique Welsh Gifts
Welsh Food Gifts:   7 Exciting Ideas for Giving Welsh Food Gifts
Traditional Welsh Gifts:   7 Cute and Fun Ideas With Traditional Welsh Gifts
Welsh Gifts for Her:   11 Welsh Mother’s Day Gifts Filled With Love and Joy

]]> Fri, 27 Dec 2024 19:28:28 +0000 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5760/powerful-ancient-welsh-symbols-and-their-meanings http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5760 Where do ancient Welsh symbols originate? Why are some of the traditional Welsh symbols we see today relatively new in comparison? Ancient symbols of Cyrmu come from the Celts who lived in Britain during the Iron Age. By 600 BC, they had established quite a presence on the island. They were pagans who believed in many deities intimately connected with the natural world. The Celts were also animists, which means they thought spirits lived in everything, even inanimate objects like stones or swords. These spiritual beliefs gave us the ancient Welsh symbols and their meanings.
As to the answer to the second question, when Christianity swept through Britain and replaced the earlier Celtic beliefs, symbols people held sacred also changed. Some symbols remained. Others fell away from widespread use or changed meaning. And other symbols appeared closer to modern times, such as the daffodil. The flower is closely tied to St. David, who spread Christianity throughout the Welsh tribes.
How old does something have to be to be considered “ancient?” Generally speaking, something is ancient if it is roughly 2,000 years old. However, it also depends on the subject matter. For example, in   Wales, woodland   is considered ancient if it contains trees dating back to the 1600s. In this post, we’ll cover ancient Welsh symbols that stay as close to being at least 2,000 years old or more as possible. So, as another example, the red dragon as a symbol of Wales (or Celtic tribes) traces as far back as Roman times. While it may not hit the 2,000-year mark precisely, it goes so far back that it predates the Welsh language. 
Y Ddraig Goch: The Red Dragon

One of the most well-known ancient Welsh symbols is the red dragon or “y ddraig goch” in Welsh. We see it as the emblem on the Welsh flag, and people also refer to the flag itself as “Y Ddraig Goch.” This mythological beast as a symbol of Wales dates back to the 5th century. Legend has it that the red dragon defeated the white dragon in battle (the Welsh defeated the Saxons). This story comes to us from Arthurian legend. The terms “Red Dragon” and “White Dragon” also became metaphors for the Britons (who would later become the Welsh) and the Saxons (the English), mainly as conflict persisted. 
While there is no proof that King Arthur existed (at least, not in the legendary way he is portrayed), his father, Uther Pendragon, may have been the Welsh king who brought the dragon into use as an icon. The name “Pendragon” is a Brythonic name. Brythonic is the branch of Insular Celtic that eventually evolved into Welsh, Cornish, and Breton. Pendragon means “Dragon Head” or “Chief Dragon.” 
The legendary King Uther is said to have used the red dragon symbol not only on his banner but also on the ring he wore. During Uther and Arthur’s time, the red dragon came to stand for the Britons who fought the Anglo-Saxon invaders. The twist in the story is that Uther Pendragon may have originally got the dragon symbol from the Romans, whose standards bore the symbol. The theory is that after the Romans left Britain, some tribal chieftains may have adopted dragon symbols on their own banners, and this may be what inspired Uther to use the mythological beast as his own.
The Wild Boar in Ancient Welsh Culture

The ancient Celts revered the boar, and it became one of their sacred animals. Wild boars are known to be aggressive and downright vicious. They will defend themselves to the death, seemingly without fear. The Celtic   tribes of ancient Wales   admired these qualities. The boar represented characteristics such as strength, courage, danger, and fearlessness. Warriors often wore boar skin when going into battle. They also adorned their swords, helmets, and shields with images of boars. Additionally, statues of boars graced altars and burial chambers. They seem to urge the deceased into the Otherworld with strength and courage. 
The boar is one of many important ancient Welsh symbols because of its occurrence and depiction in the Mabinogion. These stories are the earliest compilation of eleven Welsh tales handed down orally for centuries. While they weren’t written down until the Middle Ages, the stories go much farther back, as the   beliefs and mythology   present in their content clearly predate Christianity.
Twrch Trwyth is a monster boar that appears in the Mabinogion. It was first mentioned in Historia Brittonum, a story about British history from the 9th century. “Twrch Trwyth” means “the Boar Trwyth” in Welsh. Trwyth was once a prince. He was cursed and turned into a monstrous boar with venomous bristles covering his body.   
Another reference to boar appears in the third branch of the Mabinogion. In the story of Pryderi and Manawydan, a shining white boar leads a hunting party into a trap in the Otherworld. 
The Oak Tree 

The oak was the most sacred tree to the Celts. They believed it was a gateway to the Otherworld and viewed it as a symbol of strength, endurance, and wisdom. The Druids, who were the Celts’ priests and scholars, paid particular reverence to the oak tree. While we don’t know the exact origins of the word “Druid,” it is believed to come from the old Irish-Gaelic word for oak tree, which was “doire” and meant “wisdom.” 
This noble tree appears in   the Mabinogion   in the Story of Math. When Lleu Llaw Gyffes is struck with a spear, he transforms into an eagle and perches on an oak tree until he is rescued and turns back into a human. 
The Celtic Tree of Life symbol shows an oak tree with its branches reaching towards the sky and a network of roots beneath the earth. An intricate weaving of Celtic knots often encircles the tree and connects the “above” to the “below.” While the precise meaning the Celts had for the Tree of Life is debatable, it may be showing the connection between the earth and the heavens. It also shows the repeating cycle of birth, life, and death. 
Although the Tree of Life was a powerful symbol to the Celts in Wales, it predates them, and many cultures used it. Its origins go back to ancient Mesopotamia. The oldest Celtic Tree of Life ever found dates back to the Bronze Age. As for where the Celts adopted the ancient symbol, they may have borrowed it from the Norse culture. 
Old Welsh Symbols

Other important Welsh symbols you may recognize are not necessarily ancient, but they have been with us for years and have become well-known emblems in Welsh culture.
The Leek

The leek became a symbol of Wales during the days of the Welsh kingdoms. There are several guesses as to why. According to one legend, King Cadwaladr of Gwynedd instructed his troops to wear leeks when engaging in combat with the Saxons. In another story, it was St. David who told the soldiers to put the plants in their helmets.
Another legend describes Edward the Black Prince’s victory over the French at the Battle of Crécy in 1346. In a field of leeks, the Welsh archers faced off against the French. As a reminder, the Welsh started wearing leeks in their caps on St. David’s Day every year.
The Daffodil

Compared to the leek, the daffodil is a newcomer on the scene. Wales had a surge in daffodil popularity during World War I thanks to the support of Welshman David Lloyd George. He was the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom at the time. According to several media stories, he proposed that the daffodil be adopted as the Welsh national symbol. He also wore the flower to the Prince of Wales’ 1911 investiture (a formal ceremonial conferring a rank). The article “ Why is the daffodil a symbol of Wales? ” goes into detail about this bright yellow flower and how it was adopted as an emblem of Wales.
The Welsh Harp

Harps have been played in Wales as early as the 11th century. However, the national instrument, the triple harp (with three rows of strings instead of one), arrived in Cymru from Italy during the 1600s. A harp with this triple-string design became known as the “Welsh Harp.” Although other areas of Britain lost interest in the instrument by the 18th century, it thrived in Wales. The eisteddfodau (festivals) of music and poetry have been the perfect way for harpists to keep the love of the instrument alive.
Ancient Welsh symbols remind us of a powerful and unbreakable connection to the land and nature, and the resilient people descended from a turbulent yet vibrant past. The strength of the Celts lives on in the proud spirit and culture of the modern Welsh.  ]]> Fri, 09 Aug 2024 19:33:33 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5755/the-true-fighting-spirit-of-the-ordovices-tribe http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5755 The Iron Age for Wales spans from 800 BC to 48 AD. During this time, Celtic tribal societies occupied the island of Britain. No king or chieftain ever organized the tribes under a single ruler. Additionally, they didn’t always get along or work well together—facts that didn’t improve matters when Roman troops first stepped foot on British soil in 43 AD.  
To understand the Ordovices and what life was like at the time, we need to take a step back and look at how different things were in the British Isles when the Romans invaded. The Celtic countries of Ireland, Scotland, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany, and Wales as we know them today didn’t exist. If you asked a tribesman if he spoke Welsh, he wouldn’t have known what you meant. Members of the Ordovices tribe spoke Brythonic, a branch of the Insular Celtic language. It would one day give us Cymraeg, but not for another 500 years. 
England, on the southeast side of the island, didn’t exist yet, either. The Anglo-Saxon tribes didn’t establish dominance over the land that became England until the 5th and 6th centuries after the Romans left. In fact, England wouldn’t officially become a kingdom until 927 AD. In other words, to conquer Britain, the Romans had to fight their way through screaming, ax-wielding Celts from one end of the island to the other. It wasn’t easy. The Ordovices were one of the tribes who made sure of that.
What is the Meaning of “Ordovices?”

The word “Ordovices” was the Latin name for the Celtic tribe. While we can be sure the Celts didn’t refer to themselves in Latin, various ideas exist about their real name and what it meant. 
The Celtic word “ordo” shares a relationship with the word for “hammer” in modern Welsh, which is “gordd.” “Ordo-wik” in Celtic could mean “hammer fighters” as a tribal name (the literal translation is “hammer fight”).
There is also another meaning of “ordo,” which is a variation of the Common Celtic word “ard,” which means “high.” The Welsh word “gwych” comes from Brythonic and means “brave” or “energetic.” The words together could have formed a Brythonic name, “Ordogwych.” Its meaning could have been “brave highlanders” since the Ordovices lived in the mountains in North Wales. It’s hard to be sure since there were likely different dialects of Brythonic, just as there are different dialects of modern Welsh today.
Another idea comes from the name given to a small village in North Wales: “Dinorag.” The Welsh historian Sir John Edward Lloyd suggested that the proper name of the Ordovices has been retained as the word part “-orwig” or “-orweg” in the name of the hillfort Dinas Dinorwig for which the village is named. It means “Fort of the Ordovices.”
How Do You Pronounce “Ordovices?”

For the Ordovices pronunciation, in English, you say the word “Ordovices” like this: “OR-doe-visses,” with the stress on the first syllable. 
The Ordovices Tribe: Life in Ancient Celtic Britain

The Ordovices lived in and around heavily defended hillforts. Hillforts were well-fortified settlements built on top of hills or other advantageous positions—often on hills or promontories, but not always. They enclosed the hillforts by a high wall. This wall was often stone on the bottom half, wooden on the top, and wide enough for a man to walk on. In addition to needing good visibility, guards needed to be able to move to and fro while keeping watch. While many Iron Age Celts, like the Ordovices tribe, built hillforts, peoples in the earlier Bronze Age sometimes created them as well. We also see hillfort ruins from the Middle Ages.
Within these well-guarded settlements, people lived inside stone or wooden roundhouses with straw or reed-thatched roofs, depending on the environment. They sealed the walls of their homes with waddle and daub, a mixture of mud and sticks. The tribal chieftain and his family lived in the largest house or building within the hillfort. Some tribe members also lived outside the hillfort near their fields or with their herds of animals. However, they were still relatively close by and could seek shelter within the gate if trouble arose.   The Forts of Celtic Britain by Angus Konstam   goes into Celtic settlements in detail.
The Celts were highly skilled metalworkers, and having iron meant better tools and weapons. Strong tools made farming more manageable, and iron weapons meant better defense. In Iron Age villages, it was common for people to work as carpenters, potters, and metalworkers. There was often a large building inside a hillfort (a “factory” of sorts) with one or more forges where craftspeople smelted iron and other metals to make necessary items.  
The Ordovices and the Romans

Of the Celtic tribes that the Roman Empire had to deal with, the Ordovices put up the biggest fight besides the Silures. When Rome invaded, the Ordovices fought back with everything they had. They refused to submit tamely to Roman rule. When Caratacus (Caradog) came to their aid and led the fight, this Celtic tribe only became more unruly. 
Caratacus was a chieftain who had come from the Catuvellauni tribe in what is now Herefordshire, north of the River Thames. He and his warriors had been fighting against Rome for many years. However, after defeat, he was exiled from his lands and went to help the Ordovices and the Silures. Unfortunately, after eight years of fighting the Romans, they defeated him in 50 AD. Although he escaped death that day, Queen Cartimandua betrayed him and gave his whereabouts to the Romans. 
Governor Publius Ostorius Scapula captured Caratacus and sent him to Rome. He was allowed an audience with Emperor Claudius. The great tribal chieftain told the emperor that it was only right that he should fight for his people and lands. He stated his case, not begging, pleading, or bowing, even though he knew Scapula would likely execute him. The emperor was so impressed that he let Caratacus go. The warrior king was now exiled from Britain but was allowed to live out the rest of his life in Rome. 
The Fight Continues

Not about to give up, the Ordovices continued fighting and resisting the Romans for a remarkable twenty-eight years. In 77 AD, just before the Roman Governor Agricola came to power, the Ordovices won a great victory. They nearly wiped out an entire Roman cavalry regiment stationed in their territory. 
Agricola regarded this as a blatant act of war. In 78 AD, he assembled a force of veterans and additional troops and marched into the Ordovices’ land in North Wales. With Agricola’s more organized soldiers and warfare methods, he and his men nearly wiped out the entire tribe. The battle may have occurred at or near Dinas Dinorag, the location of the Ordovices hillfort. 
Following this, Agricola and his troops are said to have gone to Ynys Môn (Isle of Anglesey). One tactic Agricola may have employed is taking Batavian soldiers as his auxiliary troops. These Germanic people who used to live in what is now the Netherlands had particular seafaring skills. They were accustomed to swimming alongside their horses in their armor. It is said that Agricola and his soldiers then invaded Ynys Môn and destroyed the Druid stronghold there.
Where Did the Ordovices Come From?

The Ordovices tribe’s history traces back to European Celts, who migrated to Britain from the continent as early as 1,000 BC and ended their migration as late as 100 BC. By the time the Roman Empire sent troops to the island, the Ordovices had well established themselves in North Wales. 
What Celtic Tribes Were in Wales?

The Ordovices, Silures, Deceangli, Gangani, and Demetae were the five   ancient Celtic tribes   living in Cymru during the Iron Age. The Deceangli tribe is believed to be an offshoot of the Gangani tribe. The Deceangli and Gangani share a connection to the Irish Concani, a seafaring tribe that traveled to Wales by boat.
The Demetae tribe was peaceable and didn’t resist Roman rule like the Ordovices. They were given citizenship status and absorbed into Rome’s administration.
Ordovices Tribes Facts at a Glance

The Ordovices were a Celtic tribe who lived in ancient North Wales and parts of western England. Their lands were bordered by the Silures to the north and the Deceangli to the south. 
How long did the Ordovices fight the Romans? They fought the might of Rome for approximately 30 years, from 48 to 78 AD. (Rome invaded Britain in 43 AD but didn’t reach Wales until 48 AD.) One of the main ways they could hold out so long was through guerrilla warfare.
After Agricola defeated the Ordovices once and for all, he incorporated the tribe into the Roman province of Brittania Major. Their lands became a tribal administrative district. 
Some Celtic tribes, like the Dematae, were more peaceful and didn’t want to go toe to toe in battle with the highly organized Romans. The Orodovices, however, were one of the warlike tribes of Wales. They shared this with the Silures, the Gangani, and the Deceangli.  
It took the Ordovices until the 3rd century AD to recover their numbers after their defeat at Dinas Dinorag by Agricola, if, in fact, that location is where the final battle occurred. 
Cymru will never forget these brave Celts who had true fighting spirit.  ]]> Sun, 21 Jul 2024 22:00:50 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5754/round-barrows-bronze-age-wales-treasures-of-the-beaker-people http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5754
Round barrows, Bronze Age burial sites called “cairns” in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales, are ancient graves their creators covered with a mound of earth. There are two types of barrows: long and round.
Why are round barrows, Bronze Age burial mounds, often referred to as “cairns” in Scotland, Ireland, and Wales—and is there any difference? The terms “barrow” and “cairn” are sometimes used interchangeably, but they can have different meanings. A barrow is a burial mound from ancient times. The word “barrow” comes from the Old English word “beorg.” Beorg originates from Germanic and is related to the German word “berg,” meaning “hill” or “mountain.
A “cairn” is a mound of stones used to cover a grave, as a landmark, or as a memorial. The word “cairn” comes from Scottish Gaelic “carn,” which means “pile of stones.” The Welsh word for this is also “carn.” Often, cairns were placed over burial mounds, but not always. They were sometimes made symbolically. Cairns were often used to cover burials where the soil was rocky, or digging a deep grave, such as in mountainous regions, would have been difficult or impossible.
The etymology of the words “barrow” and “cairn” is one of the reasons ancient burial mounds in England are referred to as “barrows.” In the Celtic countries like Cymru (Wales), which this article will focus on, gravesites covered with stones are called “cairns.” The word “cairn” can refer to the grave, the pile of stones, or both. However, there are still barrows in Wales (the same or similar constructions you’d find in England), so we’ll use both terms as appropriate. 
Wales’ Round Barrows: Meaning and Design

What is a round barrow? A round barrow is a hill-shaped burial mound. In Wales, the Beaker Folk of the Bronze Age used this method to bury their dead. However, round barrows were built from the late Neolithic to the beginning of the Iron Age, with the majority dating to the Bronze Age. You can also find tens of thousands of round barrows in Western Europe, the Americas, and elsewhere. 
Besides being called “cairns,” burial sites in Wales can be called by other terms depending on the structure of the grave. For instance, a “cromlech” is a megalithic tomb built of several large upright stones supporting a large, flatter capstone. After being built, the structure was then covered over with earth. Sometimes, the builders also covered the earth with a cairn. So, there’s also an example of how words like “cairn,” “barrow,” and “grave” could get used interchangeably. 
Prehistoric peoples constructed two types of barrows: long barrows and round barrows. Long barrows are elongated grave mounds. They were usually built of only earth or a combination of earth with wood or stone. Neolithic people of the earliest agricultural communities built these types of barrow from about 3,800 – 3,500 BC. Some long barrows are chambered, while others are not. Round barrows are spherical and were built in the Bronze Age from about 2,000 – 1,500 BC. The Cwm Bwch Barrows in Powys, South Wales, are an example of this type. We’ll focus on round barrows: Bronze Age Wales’ windows into this intriguing historical time.  
Round Barrows Bronze Age Facts

Ancient societies built round barrows to bury their dead. These barrows appear throughout Western Europe, the British Isles, and other parts of the world, such as the Americas.
Burial practices changed during the transition from the Neolithic Age to the Bronze Age. While in the Stone Age, people built long chambered tombs (long barrows), in the Bronze Age, they abandoned this funeral style and buried their dead in round barrows.
You may also see a round barrow referred to as a “tumulus (plural “tumuli),” as they were called on early maps. The word tumulus is from Middle English, which comes from Latin and means a human-created mound or small hill. It especially refers to an ancient grave. 
Round barrow tombs are divided into five shapes: bell, saucer, pond, bowl, and disc.
Who Built the Round Barrows in Wales?

The Beaker People (also “Beaker Folk” or the “Beakers”) were the builders of the round barrows dotting the landscape of the British Isles. These ancient tribal people are so named because of the bell-shaped pottery they made. They buried their dead along with their beakers (the pottery) in the round barrows and similar structures. 
Sometimes, the Beaker Folk buried one individual alone in the grave, probably a tribal chieftain or other significant person. At other times, they buried many people together. Excavations across the British Isles show that no specific burial practice remained constant—it varied by region and tribe. 
Older Than Stonehenge

Long barrows, and some round barrows as well, actually predate Stonehenge, the ironic prehistoric structure on Salisbury Plain in Wiltshire, England. Builders constructed the massive stone circle in several stages spanning 1,500 years from the Neolithic Period into the early Bronze Age. Stonehenge’s builders obtained its bluestones (spotted dolerite) from quarries in the Preseli Mountains in Southwest Wales. Many other stones used in the megalith’s construction were also obtained from Wales.
Where Can I Find Round Barrows in Wales?

Here are some sites of round barrows tombs from Bronze Age Wales you might like to visit:










Beacon Hill Round Barrows in Beguildy (Bugeildy), Powys, South Wales. This site contains four barrows in total, dating to the Bronze Age between 2,300 and 800 BC. 



You can visit the Cwm Bwch Barrows, also in Powys. Two round barrows are situated on a high point of land overlooking the Radnor Forest. A third barrow, Cwm Bwch III, is a separate barrow on the western side of the valley (Cwm Bwch) that has a fence passing through it.



A famous burial mound is Bryn yr Ellyllon, near Flintshire, in North Wales. The name translates as “The Hill of the Goblins.” Now that you know that, who could blame you for wanting to visit? The site was a literal treasure trove that produced the famous solid-gold artifact, the Mold Gold Cape, and many others. Among the finds were stone tools, pottery fragments, and vessels filled with crematory remains. The round barrow dates back nearly four thousand years to 1,900 – 1,600 BC.



There are also many cairns in the upland areas surrounding the Cynon Valley. To the north of Hirwaun, you’ll find several on Mynydd Y Glog. Many of these round barrows overlaid with cairns were believed to be built on the hills because of their prominent positions overlooking the valley.



You can find a round barrow at the summit of Picws Du in the Black Mountain Range (also called the Western Beacons). It’s one of many you’ll find in Brecon Beacons National Park (Bannau Brycheiniog).

Featured Books


Cromlechs and Cairns in Northern Wales by Michael Senior

A cromlech is a megalithic tomb in Wales. It’s constructed of several standing stones placed vertically and one large, flat capstone placed on top. This structure was then covered with earth, often leaving an opening to serve as a door. Some cromlechs, like Bryn Cader Faner, have a narrow passage made of stone leading to the inner chamber.
From the blurb:
Following the pattern of his previous books about northern Wales’ prehistoric artefacts, the standing stones and the hillforts, Michael Senior now deals in a similar way with the earliest of them all—the burial chambers and cairn burials—by setting them in their universal contexts, then tracing the origin of the forms, as well as dealing with the examples of them here in detail.











The Beaker Folk (Ancient Peoples & Places) by Richard J. Harrison—Copper Age Archaeology in Western Europe

The Beaker Folk is a very detailed account of the people and their way of life. While it may not be for everyone (not for the casual reader, for instance), ancient history enthusiasts will find themselves in their element between these pages. You can also read about the Beaker People in the post   Ancient Welsh People . 


Neolithic and Bronze Age Funerary and Ritual Practices in Wales, 3600-1200 BC by Geneviève Tellier

What the book is about: 
Neolithic and Bronze Age Funerary and Ritual Practices in Wales  describes how Neolithic burial grounds were studied and how funerary practices changed with the construction of round barrows, Bronze Age Wales’ preferred method of interment. The Prehistoric Society has also provided a comprehensive review of the book  here . 
This book gathers, for the first time, all the burial and funeral practices in Wales from the middle of the Neolithic Age until the point that the Middle Bronze Age ended (3600-1200 BC) into one complete volume. It is the first to offer a modern summary of monument forms and burial practices in Neolithic and Bronze Age Wales. The book provides a thorough overview of all human bone deposits (both cremation and burial) from this period. It includes the analysis of over 250 human bone deposits, with new insights and interpretations. The book also discusses current debates on the changing nature and importance of burial rites in later prehistory.
The Beaker Folk of the Bronze Age may be gone, but they left us an incredible wealth of information about their way of life. For more information on notable sites from this period, visit   Cadw , Wales’ historic preservation service.


















]]> Wed, 03 Jul 2024 22:15:25 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5749/how-to-sagely-answer-are-the-welsh-celtic-or-gaelic http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5749 Are the Welsh Celtic or Gaelic? When we speak of Celtic and Gaelic, it’s important to understand that the terms are related but not interchangeable. “Celtic” refers to the language and culture of a   tribal people   who originated in central Europe as early as 1200 BC. They spread across Europe, Spain, Germany, France, and the British Isles. The common language, in particular, is what classifies them. Beyond that, a single ruler or group never unified the tribes, and each society was different, although they did hold some similar customs and religious beliefs. Even these, however, varied from tribe to tribe.  
The Celtic language is separated into two main branches: Continental Celtic and Insular Celtic. As the names suggest, Continental Celtic was spoken by people who lived in central Europe (on the continent). The Celtiberians, the Gauls, and the Galatians also spoke the language. Insular Celtic was spoken by the people who migrated to the British Isles. 
Insular Celtic is further divided into two branches: Goidelic (or Gaelic) and Brythonic (or British). Goidelic evolved into Irish Gaelic, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx Gaelic. The shortened terms are Irish, Scottish Gaelic, and Manx. The Brythonic branch evolved into the languages of Breton, Cornish, and Welsh. So, the Welsh are Celtic but not Gaelic. “Gaelic” refers to the culture or the language spoken, and it is not the language of Wales.
As mentioned above, in answer to the question, “Are the Welsh Celtic or Gaelic?” the Welsh are Celtic but not Gaelic. “Gaelic” refers to the Goidelic branch of Insular Celtic that evolved into Irish, Scottish, and Manx. The word “Gaelic” is pronounced “Gal-ick” (like “gal” as in “galaxy”) and   not   “gale-ick” (like “gale” as in a gale of wind). The Welsh people speak Cymraeg (Welsh), which came from the Brythonic branch of Insular Celtic. To further clarify this, you could say that Gaelic is always Celtic, but Celtic isn’t always Gaelic. It depends on the language the person speaks. 
Other commonly asked questions are: 1. “Are the Welsh Celtic?” and 2. “Is Welsh Celtic?” The answer to the first question is yes, as the DNA of the Welsh people traces back to the tribal societies of Europe, which held the ancestral Celtic language in common. The second question refers to the Welsh language itself. Yes, Welsh is a Celtic language from the Brythonic language group of Insular Celtic.   


What Are the Six Celtic Languages?



Six Celtic languages are still spoken today—the modern Celtic languages. These are Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Breton, Cornish, and   Welsh . All six Celtic languages are referred to as “living, “meaning they are still spoken. Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton have been continuously spoken. Manx and Cornish had died out, but thanks to a revival, they are now spoken again as a second language by several thousand people. Of all the Celtic languages, Welsh is the only one not considered endangered by UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization). In fact, from 2008 to 2020, the number of Welsh speakers has actually increased. In an   article published by the BBC   in 2020, a group of scientists from New Zealand say that within 300 years, 74% of the Welsh population will be able to speak and write Welsh. 


Where Are the Celtic Languages Spoken?



Irish   is spoken mainly in Ireland and Northern Ireland. However, Irish speakers are elsewhere in the UK, the US, Canada, and Australia. 
Scottish Gaelic   is the Celtic language spoken along the northwest coast of Scotland, the highlands, and the Hebrides Islands. Speakers can also be found in Australia, the US, and Canada (mainly Nova Scotia). Another language, separate from Gaelic, called “Scots,” evolved in the Middle Ages in the lowlands of Scotland. Scots is more similar to English, as it’s a Germanic language that developed from the Angles’ tongue. Scots has four different regional dialects. 
About 200,000 people speak   Breton   in Brittany in northwestern France. 
Manx   is spoken on the Isle of Man. Since revival efforts began, around 2000 people are believed to be speaking the language. 
Cornish   (“Kernewek”) is spoken in Cornwall in southwestern Britain. Like Manx, Cornish currently has around 2000 speakers. 
Cymraeg ( Welsh)   is spoken primarily in Wales and the Welsh colony in Patagonia, Argentina. There are also speakers in England, Scotland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the US. 
Are Welsh and Irish Related?



Welsh and Irish are related in the sense that they are both Insular Celtic languages. In other words, they are Celtic languages that evolved in the British Isles. Insular Celtic divides into Brythonic (British) and Goidelic (Gaelic). The Welsh language is Brythonic, while the Irish language is Gaelic.   
The Brythonic branch is also called “P-Celtic,” while the Goidelic branch is referred to as “Q-Celtic.” These labels came about because of how the words in each branch developed from Indo-European. Several words are common in each branch. However, on the P-Celtic (Brythonic languages) side, the “p” sound more frequently occurred in those words. The hard “k” sound was more prevalent on the Q-Celtic side. 
On this note, another question people ask is, “Is Welsh Gaelic?” No, Welsh is not Gaelic. As mentioned earlier, Welsh is Brythonic. Which leads us to the question: Are the Irish Celtic or Gaelic? They are a Celtic people, but they   speak   Irish (“Gaelige”), which comes from the Gaelic language group. “Gaelic” can also refer to their culture (Gaelic games, for example).


Scottish Gaelic vs. Welsh



Many words in Scottish Gaelic and Welsh are cognate. Cognate words are those that evolved from the same source word over hundreds or thousands of years. However, since Scottish Gaelic and Welsh don’t belong to the same branch of Insular Celtic, there are more similarities between Irish and Scottish Gaelic, for example. Irish and Scottish Gaelic are both Gaelic languages, whereas Welsh is Brythonic.
Here’s a comparison of some related words in Scottish Gaelic and Welsh. 






English
Gàidhlig (Scottish Gaelic)
Cymraeg (Welsh)
river abhainn afon name ainm enw soul, spirit anam enaid (also, the Welsh name “Enid” means soul; life) bread bairín bara (the word for “bread” is “bara” in all three Brythonic languages: Welsh, Cornish, and Breton) small beag bach, bychan brother bráthair brawd cheese càise caws

It’s interesting to see that although the words differ in Scottish Gaelic and Welsh, there are some similarities. The Gaelic words aren’t exactly like the Welsh, but they’re not entirely foreign, either. Having the English words there also makes a nice comparison. We can see that, for the most part, the English words are quite different than the Celtic ones. That’s because they evolved through the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. The words for “bread” and “cheese,” though, manage to be a little similar across the board with Celtic and Germanic alike!  Welsh vs. Irish Culture

As with Scottish Gaelic, a Welsh speaker would find it hard to understand Irish. They might be able to pick up a few words here and there, but this is another example of the differences between the Goidelic and Brythonic languages. After all, they had thousands of years to grow apart. Still, with Wales and Ireland within 300 miles of each other, there are certainly links between the two cultures. There’s a history there of helping one another.  Both countries take pride in their languages, the history behind them, and in keeping them alive. They do this through literature, cultural events, music, and policies in their respective education systems. According to the 2021 census, 17.8% of the Welsh population speak Welsh. In the Republic of Ireland, however, in 2022, the percentage of Irish speakers was 39.8%. In Northern Ireland, as of 2021, 12.4% said they had some ability to read, write, or speak Irish.
Similarities and Differences

Both the Welsh and Irish love their sports! In Ireland, Gaelic games like Gaelic football, hurling, handball, and rounders are the most popular. In Wales, rugby is the winner.  Welsh culture is known for its friendliness and hospitality; Irish culture is similar. Ireland is very well known for its food and drink. The Welsh are renowned for their music, customs, and festivals.  Wales is part of the United Kingdom and operates as a devolved constitutional monarchy. Ireland, however, is an independent nation with a unitary parliamentary republic form of government. It means that parliament runs the nation. (Note: Northern Ireland is not a part of the Republic of Ireland but is one of the four countries that make up the UK.) Generally speaking, the Welsh and Irish are close with one another as fellow Celts and neighbors. They’ve been trading, swapping stories and songs, and helping each other when needed since at least the Iron Age. It’s a friendship that goes way back. Now you understand the difference between “Celtic” and “Gaelic.” If anyone ever asks you, “Are the Welsh Celtic or Gaelic?” you can smile sagely and tell them that the Welsh are Celtic but not Gaelic since Welsh is a Brythonic language.  ]]> Wed, 05 Jun 2024 20:38:59 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5742/a-bit-about-welsh-terriers http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5742 What is a terrier? A terrier is a breed of dog from Wales that was developed to hunt and kill vermin and other small animals. They are known for being small, fearless, and highly intelligent. These dogs are also known for their characteristic “game” or “gameness.” In this context, “game” is a genetic trait that gives dogs eagerness, tenacity, and lots of spirit. 
As the oldest terrier breed in the UK, the Welsh has an exciting history. Perhaps as much as 500 years ago,   farmers in remote parts of Cymru   began breeding this dog. The early Welsh Terrier was bred to keep foxes, rodents, badgers, and other small nuisance critters off their land. By the 1700s, hunters in western Wales used Welsh Terriers to run with the hounds on fox hunts.



Are Welsh Terriers Good Pets?

Yes! Welsh Terriers make great pets. However, because they have big personalities and are so free-spirited, you should understand the following before buying or adopting one. They are not suitable for first-time dog owners.
While they are loyal and form strong bonds with family members, this breed has a medium affection level due to their independence. For comparison, a Brussels Griffon has a high affection level, and an Irish Wolfhound is one of the least affectionate dogs.
Welsh Terriers are hypoallergenic. “Hypoallergenic” in dogs means they produce low amounts of allergens, such as dander, saliva, and urine. They are not droolers and are low-shedders.
Welshies also get along reasonably well with other dogs. This point is important, as some terriers don’t get along so well with other canines. Being a hunting dog, however, if challenged, the Welsh will have no problem fighting another dog. 
Welshies get along with children as long as the kids aren’t too rough with them. For this reason, these dogs are more likely to do well with older, respectful children than young children. 
Welsh Terriers are friendly and playful but also have a mischievous or stubborn streak, which may make training a bit more challenging. 
This tough little dog breed needs  lots  of exercise! So, be ready to take them on walks and have lots of space for them to run around.
Are Welsh Terriers Cuddly?

Yes, they are cuddly and affectionate. Once again, they are loving, though they are not the most affectionate breed out there. They can be independent at times, too. They love their humans, delight in attention, and their loyalty knows no bounds. 
Welsh Terriers have a coarse, dense, wiry outer coat with a softer undercoat. Despite the wiry fur, their relatively small body and loving nature are great for a cwtch. 
How Much Is a Welsh Terrier?



UK: £650 – 1850
US: $1000 – 4000 


Price ranges vary for purchasing Welsh Terrier puppies. The above gives an average range. Please do your research and only purchase animals from reputable sources.
Similarities and Differences Between the Welsh and Other Breeds of Terrier






Welsh Terrier vs. Airedale Terrier

Welsh Terriers are smaller than Airedales. They are more affectionate but need more training and repetition of commands. Their color pattern is very similar. However, the Welshie’s head is more boxed-shaped. Both breeds are hypoallergenic.




Welsh Terrier vs. Wire Fox Terrier

The Welsh Terrier and the Wire Fox Terrier are about the same size. Wire Fox Terriers generally have a primarily white coat with spots of black, tan, or both. The Welsh is slightly more pet and stranger-friendly but has higher coat-maintenance needs than the Wire Fox. The Welsh Terrier is prone to fewer diseases. 




Welsh Terrier vs. Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier

The Soft-Coated Wheaten Terrier is a medium-sized dog bred in Ireland, larger than the Welsh Terrier. Puppies are reddish-brown and mature into the wheaten-colored coat. Both breeds require patience to train, with the Wheaten being the slightly easier of the two. They are both extremely protective.  




Welsh Terrier vs. Irish Terrier

The Irish Terrier is also a medium-sized dog. Despite not being large, they are one of the best watchdogs. Irish Terriers are more affectionate. Neither breed is likely to bite anyone or be aggressive. 




Welsh Terrier vs. Scottish Terrier

Scottish Terriers may be black, wheaten (straw to nearly white), brindle, red, silver, or sandy. Black is the most common. The Scottish Terrier isn’t hypoallergenic like the Welsh Terrier and is also slightly smaller. They are a bit more stubborn than the Welsh but still loving and eager to please. The Scottish Terrier barks and howls more and is more independent. 




Welsh Terrier vs. Toy Fox Terrier

Toy Fox Terriers, an American breed, look very different. As the name suggests, they are tiny. They are primarily white with tan, black, or chocolate markings. A Toy Fox weighs between 3 ½ and 7 pounds, whereas a Welsh Terrier weighs between 20 and 21 pounds. Having a short coat, they need less grooming than the Welsh. They are both affectionate, but the Toy Fox is more stubborn. The Toy Fox is also not hypoallergenic like the Welsh Terrier. ]]> Fri, 26 Apr 2024 20:06:18 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5735/3-periods-of-prehistoric-wales-that-gave-us-mysterious-ruins http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5735 In terms of human occupation and settlement, prehistoric Wales covers the years from about 228,000 BC to 48 AD, when the Romans began their military campaign against the Welsh tribes. The timeline is based on the earliest human remains discovered in Wales, which date to 230,000 years ago—those found at Pontnewydd Cave just outside St. Asaph in North Wales. The period from 228,000 BC to 48 AD encompasses the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.
However, because the last Ice Age left the climate inhospitable until about 12,000 years ago, it wasn’t until the Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age) that people began to settle in Wales more permanently. This early settlement period continued into the Neolithic (New Stone Age) and concluded with the end of the Bronze Age in 800 BC. So, the prehistoric human settlement timeline in Wales runs from approximately 10,000 to 800 BC. This time span within prehistory has given us some of Wales’ most intriguing and mysterious ruins.
Prehistoric Wales: The Earliest Beginnings

When does the story of prehistoric Wales begin? Well, that depends on how far back you’d like to go. The tale of the place we now know as Cymru begins before Great Britain was even an island. 450,000 years ago, the peninsula began to separate from the continent of Europe. Caught in the throes of its current Ice Age, the area that would become Great Britain was more like a tundra in Siberia than the green hills and fields we know today. The splitting away from the European land mass happened in two stages: 1) a separation by water and 2) a much later, complete separation of the land itself.
First, the chalk ridge between what is now Dover, England, and Calais, France, cracked when a lake flooded. This event breached what had been acting as a natural dam. As the Ice Age ended, the rising water completely filled the valley between the two areas. That was the point where Britain first lost its connection to the mainland. 
However, it wasn’t until much later, in 6,100 BC, that the British peninsula broke away from the continent completely. A violent tsunami struck—one of the largest tsunamis ever to occur on Earth. It turned the lowland areas into what is now the North Sea and the southern marshlands into the English Channel. Britain became an island. A small part of it would one day become Wales. 
A modest hunter-gatherer population of perhaps 5,000 called the island home. Although the tsunami no doubt took some lives, those who survived would leave behind artifacts and monuments to tell us stories of the prehistoric world they lived in. 
Stone Age Wales

Although Wales didn’t exist as an entity as we know it today, it’s been home to many people since the most primitive times. Neanderthals settled in Wales as much as 230,000 years ago. Archaeologists found stone tools and bones of this extinct hominid species at Pontnewydd Cave near St Asaph. You can view this intriguing find at  National Museum Wales . 
Our ancestors, Homo Sapiens, arrived much later, near 31,000 BC. Although early hominid remains have been found all over Europe, the earliest known human burial remains were discovered in Wales. Excavation of the site in the sea cave on the Gower Peninsula revealed what came to be known as the “Red Lady of Paviland.” “She” actually turned out to be a man. His bones had been dyed red, and his fellows ritualistically and formally buried him. Most surprising of all is that this occurred around 33,000 years ago!

Prehistoric Sites in Wales

Wales boasts some truly incredible monuments left to us by prehistoric people, such as stone circles, cairns (mounds of stones), and dolmens. A “dolmen” is a megalithic structure created when its builders place a large, flat stone on several upright stones. Dolmens were built in Britain starting in the   Neolithic Period , from about 4000 – 2500 BC. 
Prehistoric Sites: North Wales

On Ynys Môn (the island of Anglesey), you can find Barclodiad y Gawres burial chamber. Its name translates to “The Giantess’s Apronful.” This dolmen is one of the country’s most impressive examples of its type.
Another burial chamber not to miss while visiting Ynys Môn is Bryn Celli Ddu—“the mound in the dark grove.” This Neolithic tomb is one of Wales’ most famous prehistoric landmarks. It also harbors a fascinating secret. Once a year, the sunrise of the summer solstice shines shafts of light down the passage and illuminates the inner chamber. 
Bryn Cader Faner is a Bronze Age ring cairn that lies east of the small village of Talsarnau in Snowdonia National Park. Its name translates to “hill fort flag” in English, with the complete meaning being closer to “the hill of the throne with the flag.” The builders certainly positioned it to make a statement. Looming on the brow of a rise in the remote moorland, it bares its jagged teeth against the horizon as one approaches. This wonder of the prehistoric age consists of a mound of stones surrounded by 15 upright slate pillars. Initially, there may have been as many as 30 standing stones. This site most likely contained a grave beneath the cairn. However, there’s evidence that treasure hunters removed its contents in the 19th century. 
Prehistoric Sites: South Wales

At the other end of the country, you’ll find another top-rated and mysterious attraction: Pentre Ifan. Pentre Ifan translates to “Ivan’s Village.” While Pentre Ifan was originally covered with earth to contain the stone burial chamber inside, you can now view it as a group of standing stones. The giant capstone (stone placed on top) appears insecurely balanced. However, it has remained there for 5,000 years!
This dolmen’s “bluestones” are the same material from which Stonehenge in Wiltshire, England is made. These bluestones get their name from their bluish color when freshly broken or wet. They’re composed of volcanic and igneous rocks. The most common types of bluestones are dolerite and rhyolite. Historians still don’t know how the   ancient people   did it. Yet, somehow, they transported the large stones from Preseli hills in what is now Pembrokeshire, Wales, and erected them on Salisbury Plain in southern England 140 miles away.
Mynydd Y Gelli, sometimes called the “Welsh Stonehenge” or “Rhondda Stonehenge,” is located in Gelli, Glamorgan. It gets its name from one of the mountains surrounding the Rhondda Valley. The burial site is a complex circle of stones about 30 feet in diameter. A low embankment surrounds it. Nearby are three cairns, one of which is in an unusual platform shape. A small standing stone, no longer upright, rests beside it.
Are you looking for a prehistoric Wales map broken down by region? This post on  Britain Express about ancient site locations  includes a map of ancient sites in Wales. 
Stone Age Animals

After the dinosaurs disappeared, a new type of beast dominated the landscape: giant mammals. Herbivores and carnivores alike were massive. At one time, these megafauna lived alongside humans. They eventually went extinct due to the changing climate and human hunting. Not only were they unable to adapt quickly enough to warmer environments and vegetation differences, but they also had to contend with a new apex predator that could throw spears.

Animals by Period 

Paleolithic : Prehistoric Wales’ animals of the Old Stone Age were massive compared to the wildlife you’ll find in the country today. Before 8,500 BC, the land was home to not only wooly mammoths but also to giant oxen (aurochs), giant deer, wooly rhinoceros, straight-tusked elephants, cave hyenas, saber-toothed cats, cave lions, and even hippos.
Mesolithic : From 8,500 to 4,000 BC, prehistoric forest started replacing the plains where these giant beasts thrived. During this period, smaller creatures like horses, boar, deer, and foxes began appearing in larger numbers. Meanwhile, the populations of larger animals of the Ice Age began to decline and die out. The native wild horses also go extinct during this period.
Neolithic:  As more people settled in farming communities from 4,000 – 2,400 BC, we find the remains of cattle, pigs, and sheep added to the timeline. 
Bronze Age:  From 2,200 to 700 BC, farming became even more popular, and livestock raising grew considerably. People still hunted deer, boar, ducks, and other water birds. Traders from Eurasia reintroduced horses to the British Isles. Along with cattle, settlers used horses for both transportation and food. 
For more  prehistoric Wales facts , Cadw, Wales’ historic environment service, has a wealth of information on the subject. 
It’s been almost 2,000 years since the period we know as prehistoric Wales drew to a close. However, this exciting age is hardly lost to us. The mysterious monuments of these ancient people still challenge historians as to their construction. They hold us captive with their otherworldly energy. And most importantly, they let us glimpse the idea that almost anything is possible.  ]]> Thu, 04 Apr 2024 18:02:21 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5732/3-reasons-ancient-woodland-in-wales-is-more-valuable-than-ever http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5732 Why are areas designated ancient woodland in Wales special? These forests, which date back at least 400 years, are the most complex environment in Great Britain. They protect wildlife, help the environment through soil and air quality, and preserve another piece of Wales’ rich history.
Wales’ forests provide a haven for more threatened wildlife species than anywhere else on the island. The undisturbed soils and centuries of decaying wood in these forests have created the perfect climate for fungi, slugs, snails, and insects. Many species of birds and mammals also reside in these natural sanctuaries. 
These ancient woodlands also positively impact the environment by removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and preventing land erosion. They can help keep large earthworks in place. Many ancient woods are also important archaeological sites that preserve the past. Stone circles, dolmens, burial mounds, and other structures have been found in these living history museums made of ash and oak. 
The Four Classifications

There are four different classifications of ancient woodland.
“Ancient semi-natural woods” are those that have developed naturally. Humans didn’t plant the original woodlands, although people used timber from these forests. These areas have had continuous woodland cover for at least 400 years. 
“Plantations on ancient woodland sites” are ancient forests in which the trees have been cut down and replanted with non-native species. Usually, these non-native species are coniferous (pine trees, etc). However, these areas still have the complex soil found in ancient woodland. Environmentalists are working to restore these areas. 
“Restored ancient woodland sites” are forests that once contained more than 50% non-native species but now contain less than 50% due to human efforts at restoration. They’ve had continuous woodland cover for at least 400 years. While people have restored these forests to a more natural condition, the woods aren’t necessarily in good ecological condition or wholly restored. 
“Ancient woodland sites of unknown category” may fall into any of the three mentioned categories. It may be a forest that is going through a transition phase. Therefore, it may contain shrubs, trees that have been removed, young trees, or ground that is being made ready for planting. 
Ancient Woodland Inventory

The first inventory maps date back to the 1800s. In more recent times, the Forestry Commission Wales performed an initial count of Wales’ ancient woodlands in the 1980s. At that time, the count recorded 62,000 hectares or 153,205 acres. However, newer digital mapping in 2012 showed that ancient woodland in Wales is much larger than that. This new count shows 95,000 hectares or 234,750 acres. It also means that the ancient woodland areas make up 30% of all forests in Wales. 
There are 20 woodland Special Areas of Conservation, which are protected habitat areas in the United Kingdom. These protected sites in Wales also belong to the Natura 2000 network of  European protected wildlife sites . These areas are safeguarded by European and international law. 
Why is this significant? Well, for several important reasons. 
Forestry Commission Wales is responsible for protecting these forested areas from development. A complete ancient woodland map helps guarantee that no sites become neglected or developed due to improper zoning. 
The trees in Wales’ ancient forests date back at least 400 years. Some of the most common native tree species include ash, oak, and birch. Other ancient woodland tree species include beech, sycamore, alder, rowan, cherry, hazel, hawthorn, and holly.
Ancient woodland in Wales is one of the country’s most abundant wildlife habitats. These woods are also home to more threatened species (at least 152) than anywhere else in the United Kingdom. 
Are Areas Designated as Ancient Woodland in Wales Left Completely Wild?

The short answer is “no.” No ancient woodland in Wales has been left completely undisturbed. However, there are areas where the woodland is semi-natural, meaning that some parts of it have been left relatively undisturbed. 
However, these areas are managed responsibly, and their resources are used with care. Ancient woodlands provide a certain amount of sustainably sourced timber. Because of this use, the woodlands also give people jobs, which helps the economy.
How These Natural Areas Help the Environment

By leaving enough of the forests in their natural state, the woodlands also aid in an action called “carbon sequestration.” Carbon sequestration is when carbon dioxide is removed from the Earth’s atmosphere, captured, and stored. There are two types: Biological and Geological. In biological carbon sequestration, carbon dioxide is captured and stored in vegetation, soil, and oceans. With geological carbon sequestration, carbon dioxide is secured and stored underground in rock formations. This second type is generally done industrially via machinery, whereas biological capture happens naturally. 
When Wales’ ancient woodlands are protected and managed sustainably, their ecosystem remains strong in helping to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. In fact, grasslands, rangelands, and forests capture about 25% of the world’s carbon emissions. Since the buildup of CO2 and other greenhouse gasses can contribute to  climate change , the forests’ natural air-cleansing properties are vital to life on Earth.  
How Can I Find Ancient Woodland Near Me?

Each country in the United Kingdom keeps its own records of ancient forests. For an ancient woodland UK map, you can use  Woodlandr to locate an ancient woodland near you by entering your postcode. This database covers ancient woodland in Scotland, Wales, and England. 
To find a complete list of ancient woodland in Cymru, please consult an  ancient woodland in Wales map . Below are a few examples of sites that are well worth the drive. 
South Wales

Tenby, Wales, was built in the Middle Ages and is still enclosed by a remarkably intact wall. In this charming seaside town, you can find  Pembrokeshire Coastal National Park . It’s the only national park situated on the coast anywhere within the United Kingdom. Within it is Pengelli Wood, an ancient oak woodland with clearly marked footpaths. Pengelli Wood is one of the largest ancient oak forests remaining in Wales. 
Ty Canol is another forest in the national park, and this one dates back some 6,000 years. The landscape is atmospheric and mysterious, with its moss-covered trees and rocks. A 2.5-mile circular walking trail will take you around the wood and through a small section of it. You’ll continue on a dirt track once you reach the ancient woodland from the park.
Wentwood Forest is another of South Wales’ ancient woodlands. This enchanted place is steeped in folklore and hosts a stone circle older than Stonehenge, which was built around 4,500 years ago. There’s also a Bronze Age burial mound about a mile to the north of Gray Hill. 
North Wales 

In North Wales, Erlas Black Wood is a small ancient woodland of about 2.5 hectares enclosed by the Wrexham Industrial Estate. This wood is quite an exciting find. It survived the Second World War when factories were built in the surrounding area to make artillery. It’s home to some very large oak and ash trees. Erlas Black Wood also provides the perfect environment for delicate and beautiful spring flowers such as yellow lesser celandines, wood anemones, dog violets, and vivid magenta early purple orchids.
Few people know that North and Mid Wales boast ancient woodlands known as “Celtic Rainforests.” Yes, those are really a thing! While the biggest rainforests are located in the tropics, rainforests exist in cooler climates, too. Most of Wales’ Celtic Rainforests are located in the river valleys of rural Ceredigion, Powys, and Gwynedd. A few to check out are  Llechwedd Einion ,  Coed Cwm Einion  woodland, and  Coed Felenrhyd and Llennyrch . 
The  Din Lligwy  prehistoric Celtic settlement in Anglesey, Wales, is surrounded by ancient woodland. Here, amidst oak and ash trees, you’ll find an Iron Age village, a Neolithic burial chamber, and an old and quite charming stone church. 
How to Identify Ancient Forest

If you’re out for a stroll and spot a lovely forest you’d like to explore, how can you tell if it’s ancient woodland? You may have to consult an ancient woodland inventory to get confirmation. However, below are a few indicators of whether you’ve encountered an ancient woodland. 


Trees: Guelder rose, Lime, small-leafed, Wild service tree, Spindle
Flowers: Bluebell, Wood anemone, Primrose, Lily-of-the-valley, Wild garlic, Dog’s mercury, Red campion
Ferns: Scaly male fern, Hard fern, Hart’s tongue fern
Lichens: Barnacle lichen, Lungwort lichens
Slugs: Lemon slug
Evergreen perennial: Pendulous sedge
Fungus: Hazel gloves fungus
Insects: Violet click beetle

The boundaries of ancient woodland may resemble ditches or banks. They might have overgrown hedges, boundary trees, or correspond with parish boundaries on old maps.
There may also be evidence that humans used it in earlier times. Some telltale signs include the remains of mine pits, furnaces and hearths used for roasting ore, and trees that show signs of being cut back. 
The only drawback of stumbling upon an ancient woodland is that you may not want to leave! But don’t worry. Sometimes, you can find areas in woodland Wales for sale, like in 2023 when 28 acres of ancient  Pembrokeshire coastal woodland  went on the market.  ]]> Thu, 28 Mar 2024 16:07:00 +0000 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5728/5-ways-life-in-neolithic-wales-changed-the-land-itself http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/5728 Neolithic Wales was a time of transformation. During this era, the nomadic hunter-gatherers who lived in ancient Wales were mostly wiped out or absorbed by immigrant farmers from the Mediterranean — an event that changed not only the way people lived but the landscape of Wales itself. 
The time period we refer to as “Neolithic Wales” began in approximately 4000 BC and lasted until 2400 BC. Archaeologists also call this the Neolithic period or the “New Stone Age.” It wasn’t just that the inhabitants of Britain began farming or using stone tools at this time that brought about a change. It’s more about how and why this transition came about. 
About 6000 years ago, there was a migration of farmers from the Mediterranean to the British Isles. These farmers were the ancestors of the people living in what now is Turkey. When they arrived in Britain, these prehistoric European agrarians found a small population of hunter-gatherers already living on the island, and both groups soon integrated.
The incoming farmers, however, brought with them not only greater numbers in terms of their population size but also better tools and more advanced ways of doing things. Hence, the “New Stone Age” began. They mingled with and eventually mostly absorbed the hunter-gatherers into their own group. The more primitive people learned to farm, raise animals for food, and build homes to live in permanently rather than roam the land. 
New People, New Ways, and Megalithic Monuments

Before the New Stone Age, Neolithic Wales’ people were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place and found shelter where they could. They built temporary dwellings and stayed in caves or other suitable places. These nomadic peoples looked distinctly different from modern Welsh people, with medium brown to black skin and hazel, blue, or blue-green eyes. 
The Mediterranean farmers who migrated to ancient Wales around 4000 BC were also dark-complected with medium brown skin and dark brown hair and eyes, according to data collected from archaeological finds. Research suggests that they didn’t mix well with the inhabitants of Britain and, within a short period, wiped most of them out. 
Some of the decline of the existing population could have been due to new diseases being introduced. There’s also evidence that the takeover may have been a violent one. In some places, the hunter-gatherers and farmers may have co-existed peacefully. At least a small portion of the hunter-gatherers must have integrated, as some people in Wales today carry DNA that traces back  10,000 years  to the last Ice Age.
Farming in Wales in the New Stone Age

By about 3500 BC, many people in Neolithic Wales were farming. In wooded areas, they cleared forests and used the lumber to build wooden houses. Beyond their villages, they cleared additional land where they could plant their crops. 
The farmers grew wheat, barley, beans, peas and flax. They ground the wheat and barley into flour. They used the flax plant to make linen cloth for clothing, a versatile addition to furs and animal skin garments. However, they continued to find certain plants by foraging, like berries, nuts, and mushrooms.
Another thing these Neolithic farmers in   ancient Wales   did differently than the hunter-gatherers was the amount and kinds of animals they kept. They raised cattle, sheep, goats, and wild pigs that they domesticated. All of these provided meat, but the cows also gave the farmers milk and cheese. The farmers could produce cashmere from the goats’ fleece and, of course, wool from the sheep. They also kept dogs as pets and guardians to protect them against some of Neolithic Wales’ animals, such as wolves and wild boars. Dogs also worked the farms, herding sheep and cattle.
Neolithic Wales’ history is significant because these early farmers shaped and changed the land into what it is today. By clearing trees for growing crops, making grazing areas for livestock, or luring game animals, the soil’s nutrient levels fell over time. The earth also became more acidic. In these conditions, plants such as heather, gorse, and coarse grasses thrived. As the heathland was also being constantly used, it never turned back into woodland, giving much of Wales the landscape it has today. 
Grave Mounds and Stone Circles

The people of this period built stone structures for religious purposes and to honor their dead properly. Cromlechs, cairns, and stone circles are among some of the megalithic structures that tell us more of their story. 
Cromlechs are tombs made of several upright stones with a flat stone laid on top of them. The stones were then covered over with a mound of earth, with the inside being left hollow. There are other meanings of the word “cromlech,” but the above definition is the one that most applies to Wales. 
A cairn is a mound of stones covering a burial chamber, such as a cromlech, or a cairn could be laid directly over graves beneath the earth.  
Stone circles came later in time than cromlechs. Stone circles of varying sizes were often erected around cairns. Sometimes, they may have been constructed to denote places of worship and other times to mark areas for meeting and trade.  
Neolithic Sites: Wales’ Incredible Burial Chambers

Wales is home to many examples of the megalithic structures above, some remarkably well-preserved. Some of these include Bryn Celli Ddu, Lligwy, Parc le Breos, Carreg Coetan Arthur,   Bodowyr , Dyffryn Ardudwy, St Lythans (“Gwal y Filiast” in Welsh, which translates to “Kennel of the Greyhound Bitch”), and Pentre Ifan Burial Chambers.
Pentre Ifan, for example, dates back to about 3500 BC. It is perhaps the largest and one of the most intact of Wales’ Neolithic portal tombs. A “portal tomb” is a burial chamber with two large stones on either side of an entrance. A huge “capstone” (stone placed on top) is then laid across the upright stones. Portal tombs are also called “dolmans.” In Pentre Ifan’s case, the capstone is thought to weigh close to 16 tons. For that reason, it has a third upright stone supporting it from the back. Even though it appears precariously balanced, the monument has stood firm for the last 5000 years.
There are also similar Neolithic sites in Scotland and elsewhere in the British Isles. One of the most famous and insightful examples of a Neolithic stone house built in a place where wood was scarce is  Skara Brae  in Orkney. 
Click here for a  map of ancient sites in Wales .  Cadw  (Wales’ Historic Environment Service) and  Amgueddfa Cymru  (National Museum Wales) are also excellent resources for ancient artifacts, prehistoric finds, and many fascinating historical gems from Wales’ past. 
Timeline

Neolithic Wales’ timeline spans from roughly 4000 to 2400 BC. This means it began 3000 to 3400 years before the ancient Celts set foot on the island.
4000 BC : Waves of farmers from the area near the Aegean Sea arrive in Britain.
3500 BC : Many people in Wales and across the British Isles are now farming and raising livestock. They also made simple pottery and established more permanent settlements.
3300 BC : Early builders erect some of the first henges and stone circles.
3000 BC : People construct some of the first passage graves. More land is cleared for farming as settlements spread.
2400 BC : The Beaker People arrive in Wales. Metalwork improved with the introduction of bronze, and more sophisticated tools and weapons were developed.
The Neolithic Period for this region drew to a close when a second wave of farmers—the group we now refer to as the “Beaker People”—immigrated to the British Isles. They came from Europe around 4400 years ago, mainly from the Eurasian Steppe (grassland extending about 5000 miles from present-day Hungary to Manchuria). The Beaker People are so-called because of the bell-shaped pottery they made. Their newer technologies of crafting weapons and tools from bronze marked the beginning of the Bronze Age in Britain. 
Neolithic Wales: Facts of Note

In summary, 5 significant ways life changed for people in Wales during the New Stone Age were:


Agriculture replaced the hunter-gatherer lifestyle, meaning people could now establish more permanent dwellings and live together in growing communities.
Over time, farming and animal husbandry altered the land by depleting the soil’s nutrient content and making it more acidic. The landscape went from woodland to cropland and eventually to heathland, which covers many parts of Wales today.
Keeping herds of cattle meant not only a plentiful meat supply but also that milk and cheese became staples in the diet.
Growing flax meant that linen cloth could be spun to make clothing. This durable, breathable, and easy-to-care-for fabric was a considerable advancement over garments made from animal hide.
Because people now lived in communities, they built stone structures to honor their dead, worship, meet for ceremonies or trade, and sometimes act as astronomical observatories. Bryn Celli Ddu, for example, is aligned to the midsummer sunrise. Many of these megalithic monuments were built before the great pyramids of Egypt!

If you’re a fan of ancient artifacts, archaeology, and megaliths, you may enjoy visiting some of Wales’ most intriguing places.  The Old Stones of Wales  is a helpful field guide from a series that covers these historic sites in the country. ]]> Thu, 22 Feb 2024 20:15:00 +0000 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/4804/best-fiction-books-set-in-wales http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/4804 Leap the Wild Water (The Megan Jones Trilogy Book 1) by Jenny Lloyd 

One of the most glittering gems of indie author talent, Jenny Lloyd has written a brilliant trilogy inspired by her Welsh heritage and ancestors.
Brother and sister, Morgan and Megan Jones, share a dark secret. One snowy night, six years before, Morgan did a terrible thing and he is haunted by the consequences. His sister Megan wants to put the past behind her and is planning to marry Eli Jenkins. Morgan risks losing everything, including absolution for his wrongdoing, should Megan get what she wants. Morgan is a desperate man, there is no telling to what lengths he may go to get his own way.
As their paths diverge, the personal choices they make will have grave consequences for each other and for others. Meanwhile, a little girl suffers abuse and neglect at the hands of the woman paid to raise her. Too late, Megan realizes her mistake in thinking she could keep her secret safe. Her past begins to catch up with her and the only choices left to her are ones of life and death.
The first book in the Megan Jones trilogy, Leap the Wild Water is a tense, suspenseful novel set against the harsh and beautiful backdrop of early 19th century, religious, rural Wales. Leap the Wild Water is a story of treachery, betrayal, love and redemption, and the enduring strength of the human spirit.
What readers are saying:
"The writing was a delight - controlled, structured, poetic, well-paced and authentic. I loved the descriptions of the Welsh countryside in all weathers - beautifully brought to life by an author who both loves the land and knows the art of good writing. It held me mesmerized to its breathtaking ending. All the time as I read, I could see this story making a riveting TV series."  --Malla Duncan, Amazon Reviewer
"Ms. Lloyd weaves a poignant tale of family with a beauty and grace that takes your breath away. We are taken into the minds of sister and brother, Megan and Morgan, and without being consciously aware, the reader feels sympathy to both, drawn in by the skillful depth of their characters. Leap the Wild Water transports the reader to a different time, letting us feel the rush of the water, the wind in our hair, the riotous colours of vegetation on a Welsh mountain, the harsh reality of child abuse and the hopelessness of just being free, as a woman, in an unforgiving time." --Megan Denby, Author
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Daughter of Time (The After Cilmeri Series Book 1) by Sarah Woodbury

A medieval man with an uncertain destiny, Llywelyn, the Prince of Wales, faces treachery and deceit at the hands of friends and foes alike ...
A modern woman with a troubled past, Meg's life is in tatters when she slips through time and into medieval Wales ...
Only by working together can Meg and Llywelyn navigate the shifting allegiances that threaten the very existence of Wales--and create their own history that defies the laws of time.
Daughter of Time  is appropriate for teens to adults and is followed by  Footsteps in Time,  Book One in the  After Cilmeri  series.
What readers are saying: 
"While a time-travel romance, the relationship between Meg and Prince Llywelyn of Wales is not cliché. It's truly two people struggling to overcome their different backgrounds and the current political climate of 13th century Wales to follow their hearts. The completely fresh storyline of a Daughter of Time is one of the strongest aspects of this story." --The Kindle Book Review
"Daughter of Time gives a picture of medieval Wales and using known history, the author weaves a romantic tale where two people from different times come to love one another. Sarah Woodbury does an excellent job with the setting, history, and emotions of both main characters and I look forward to reading more of this series." --Jane Jones, Amazon Reviewer
Also see Sarah's author interview on the Welsh-American social network, Americymru .
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Voices of the Stars by Rowena Whaling

“Voices of the Stars” is a sweeping, heroic saga - presented in an Arthurian setting in a very historically accurate Post-Roman land of the Britons. It is a fantasy, action/adventure, metaphysical, psychological, myth and magic, tragic romance, medieval warfare, historical fiction novel.
“Voices of the Stars” is the true, in-depth, eye-witness chronicle of the world of the King, Arthur, and his compatriots of his Alliance of the 5 distinct cultures living on “These Our Fair Isles”: the original Old Dark Tribes, the Celtic Clans, the Roman-styled Britons, the Picti and the original, ‘legal’ Saxons, whose land was obtained through barter with Vortigern. It is also the real story of Arthur and Morgan’s tragic, Star-crossed love for one another, the devoted loyalty of their brother of the heart, Bedwyr, the strength of their mother, Igraine, Great Seer of the Old Dark Tribes, the treachery of their other sister Morganna le Faye, and the never before told story of the only child of Arthur’s blood, Mordred. Woven into the rich Dark Age tapestry of this magnificently complex, emotionally charged novel – the first in its series – are the Old Ways, The Old Gods, the Great Goddess and the Goddesses Nine, Magic, Seers, Enchantresses, Druids, Dragons, Ancient Rituals, medieval warfare, and the Leonardo DaVinci of his day - Gwyddion, the Merlin.
What readers are saying:
"An epic poetic tale...mesmerizing from the first page to the last. This is the history behind the Arthurian legends but no less intriguing and carried over generations. The perfect ensemble of history, knowledge, eloquent writing, magic, and mystery to keep every page turning. The characters come to life upon the pages as you live through them and experience the past from many perspectives. I can't wait for the next of the series to be published!" --Ryan S., Amazon Reviewer
"BEST Arthurian Novel EVER...This take on the Arthurian Saga is told totally from Ancient British and Welsh sources, so there is no Lancelot or other later or French trappings. And I loved it!" --Stharp28, Amazon Reviewer
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I Let You Go by Clare Mackintosh

On a rainy afternoon, a mother's life is shattered as her son slips from her grip and runs into the street...
I Let You Go  follows Jenna Gray as she moves to a ramshackle cottage on the remote Welsh coast, trying to escape the memory of the car accident that plays again and again in her mind and desperate to heal from the loss of her child and the rest of her painful past.
At the same time, the novel tracks the pair of Bristol police investigators trying to get to the bottom of this hit-and-run. As they chase down one hopeless lead after another, they find themselves as drawn to each other as they are to the frustrating, twist-filled case before them. Elizabeth Haynes, author of  Into the Darkest Corner , says, “I read  I Let You Go  in two sittings; it made me cry (at least twice), made me gasp out loud (once), and above all made me wish I'd written it...a stellar achievement.”
What readers are saying: 
‘“On the level of the movie  The Sixth Sense  for its cleverness...This kind of sharp, cunning writing makes one eagerly look forward to Mackintosh’s next novel.”  —Shelf Awareness
“Chilling, compelling, and compassionate.”—Paula Hawkins, #1  New York Times  bestselling author of  The Girl on the Train
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Here Be Dragons: A Novel (Welsh Princes Trilogy Book 1) by Sharon Kay Penman

Thirteenth-century Wales is a divided country, ever at the mercy of England's ruthless, power-hungry King John. Llewelyn, Prince of North Wales, secures an uneasy truce by marrying the English king's beloved illegitimate daughter, Joanna, who slowly grows to love her charismatic and courageous husband. But as John's attentions turn again and again to subduing Wales---and Llewelyn---Joanna must decide where her love and loyalties truly lie.
The turbulent clashes of two disparate worlds and the destinies of the individuals caught between them spring to life in this magnificent novel of power and passion, loyalty and lies. The book that began the trilogy that includes  Falls the Shadow  and  The Reckoning,   Here Be Dragons  brings thirteenth-century England, France, and Wales to tangled, tempestuous life.
What readers are saying:
“A masterful picture of Wales in the thirteenth century . . . vividly pictured as grandly beautiful, its people volatile, stubborn, and mystic.” -- The San Diego Union
"I absolutely loved learning about Wales and their history in more detail... Oh my where to start with this review. This trilogy captivated me even more than the Plantagenet series. I absolutely loved learning about Wales and their history in more detail. I cry through the trilogy a lot so I can't really read in public (lol) and even after 50-100 times reading I still cry when I read about Joanna. I always hope for a different ending but I know it's not to be. I laughed at some parts too especially at one standout moment with Joanna - won't give it away for people who haven't read it yet." --Veronica H., Amazon Reviewer
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The Grey King by Susan Cooper

There is a Welsh legend about a harp of gold, hidden within a certain hill, that will be found by a boy and a white dog with silver eyes -- a dog that can see the wind. Will Stanton knew nothing of this when he came to Wales to recover from a severe illness. But when he met Bran, a strange boy who owned a white dog, he began to remember. For Will is the last-born of the Old Ones, immortals dedicated to saving the world from the forces of evil, the Dark. And it is Will's task to wake-with the golden harp -- the six who must be roused from their long slumber in the Welsh hills to prepare for the last battle between the Dark and the Light.
What readers are saying:
"This is my favorite book out of the series, and a large part of that is because it's set in Wales. I have a weakness for the place, most probably because I'm part Welsh, and the places she has used are all described so perfectly. Cooper is a master bard." --eirian_evenstar@buzzle.com, Amazon Reviewer
"I love this series probably more than any other I've read. It could be because my fifth grade teacher read part of this series to us and it was what got me truly interested in reading. This particular book is gorgeous. The imagery and romance of Wales! I remember after reading this I wanted to learn the language and go visit! ." --Liz, Amazon Reviewer
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Rape of the Fair Country by Alexander Cordell

The first volume in Alexander Cordell's classic trilogy of mid-nineteenth century Wales.
Set in the grim valleys of the Welsh iron country during the turbulent times of the Industrial Revolution, this unforgettable novel begins the saga of the Mortymer family - a family of hard men and beautiful women, all forced into a bitter struggle with their harsh environment, as they slave and starve for the cruel English ironmasters.
But adversity could never still the free spirit of Wales, or quiet its soaring voice, and the Mortymers struggle on even as the iron foundries ravish their homeland and cripple their people.
Rape of the Fair Country  launched the bestselling career of Alexander Cordell in 1959 and went on to sell millions of copies in seventeen languages throughout the world.
What readers are saying: 
"An engrossing, heart-rending, and savagely beautiful book. Written from the perspective of a young boy growing to adulthood in early nineteenth century industrial Wales, the story leaps at you from the very first page and holds you utterly enthralled until the last." --Mike Williams, Amazon Reviewer
"A period of history that should not be forgotten... This is an excellent book. This is the kind of history that should be taught in Welsh schools. Apart from that, I agree with all the well written (5 star) reviews. Da Iawn!" --Dieter Von Wolfswinkel, Amazon Reviewer
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Between Two Fires: A Novel (Queen Branwen)  by Mark Noce

Saxon barbarians threaten to destroy medieval Wales. Lady Branwen becomes Wales' last hope to unite their divided kingdoms when her father betroths her to a powerful Welsh warlord, the Hammer King. But the fledgling alliance is fraught with enemies from within and without as Branwen becomes the target of assassination attempts and courtly intrigue. A young woman in a world of fierce warriors, she seeks to assert her own authority and preserve Wales against the barbarians. But when she falls for a young hedge knight named Artagan, her world threatens to tear itself apart.
Caught between her duty to her people and her love of a man she cannot have, Branwen must choose whether to preserve her royal marriage or to follow her heart. Somehow she must save her people and remain true to herself, before Saxon invaders and a mysterious traitor try to destroy her.
Branwen's story combines elements of mystery and romance with Noce's gift for storytelling.
What readers are saying:
“A spirited ride through a turbulent slice of Welsh history!” --Paula Brackston,  NYT  Bestselling author of  The Witch’s Daughter
“A fast-paced read that has a wonderfully visual style and some memorable characters. Mark Noce combines Welsh history with a touch of folkloric magic in this promising debut novel. Lady Branwen is a strong and engaging narrator and the turbulent setting of early medieval Wales makes a fine backdrop for an action-packed story.” --Juliet Marillier, Bestselling author of  Daughter of the Forest  and  Wolfskin
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The Lost Welsh Kingdom: What was to become of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn's Queen? by John Hughes

"Another epic novel from John Hughes." --Norma Penfold, Gwales
Set in the period of the reign of Gruffudd ap Llywelyn (1039-63), a violent, determined man who became the undisputed king of all Wales, "The Lost Welsh Kingdom" follows the life and times of young Elen. Very much against her will, her life becomes embroiled with that of this most powerful of Welsh kings at his capital in Rhuddlan. Will she survive such a life of misery? Or will she embrace the fate that has befallen her...
Amazon UK
Y Lolfa Publishing: Paperback
 
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Sacrifice: Book One of y Ddraig (The Dragons of Brython) by Gwendolyn Beynon

528 A.D. Cymru (Wales)
Melangell is a Lifebringer, a dragon-maiden learning to protect one of the land’s most ancient mysteries, y Ddraig. She expects to pass her years as have a score of teachers before her—sequestered, safeguarding an egg that barely moves from year to year, never using the deadly skills she’s been taught in secret. But the King’s relentless pursuit of this most sought after relic throws her into the middle of war and, adept or not, Melangell enters captivity with the egg to defend the sleeping dragonling within.
Her abductor is Cai ap Cynyr—fierce warrior, loyal brother and sword-arm to the King. He’s been hunting all of Cymry for the treasures Artwr demands to ensure triumph against the invading Angles. He uses the intrigue of the Lifebringer to master his armsmen, but when he spirits Melangell and the dragon egg further into seclusion, she grows captivated by her captor.
But she is a Lifebringer, sworn only to y Ddraig. And fierce Cai must deliver the dragonling to Artwr to at last drag himself out of his brother’s deep shadow. And all the while the egg readies itself to emerge.
‘Sacrifice’ is the first in a series of three books based around 'y Ddraig' (the Dragon) set in sixth-century Arthurian Wales, featuring characters based on Welsh myth and history.
What readers are saying:
"Gwendolyn Beynon's fast-paced and utterly winning debut is a mix of historical fiction and fantasy... Seamlessly blends the fantasy elements of her story with well-grounded pre-history, and the result is the beginning of a first-rate new series.  Recommended ." -- Historical Novel Society
"I've never read a story like this!  I was completely entranced by this story. Nothing is sugar coated and the the details are consistent with the life at that time... Trust me, you want to read this book."  --Book Born, Amazon Reviewer ]]> Fri, 28 Jul 2017 21:46:57 +0100 http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/3801/leap-the-wild-water http://americymrunet.jamroomhosting.com/jaime-conrad/blog/3801 Megan Jones tries to carve a life of her own, in a community where women are neither equal nor free. Her brother, Morgan, is a man in torment; his Mam has died and he is now desperate to make amends for the terrible wrongs he has done. But what if doing the right thing would lead to his sister's ruin? As Morgan wrestles with his conscience, Megan's past begins to catch up with her and threatens to destroy her life. Set in early 19th century Wales, Leap the Wild Water is a dark tale of treachery, secrets, and what it means to be free. From shifting viewpoints, the stories of Megan and Morgan unfold towards a terrifying conclusion.
Leap the Wild Water on Amazon
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